Quantum dot films, lighting devices, and lighting methods

ABSTRACT

Light-emitting quantum dot films, quantum dot lighting devices, and quantum dot-based backlight units are provided. Related compositions, components, and methods are also described. Improved quantum dot encapsulation and matrix materials are provided. Quantum dot films with protective barriers are described. High-efficiency, high brightness, and high-color purity quantum dot-based lighting devices are also included, as well as methods for improving efficiency and optical characteristics in quantum dot-based lighting devices.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.13/287,616, filed Nov. 2, 2011, now pending, which claims the benefit ofU.S. Provisional Application No. 61/412,004, filed Nov. 10, 2010, and isa continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/318,516,filed Dec. 30, 2008, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,343,575, all of which areincorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to quantum dot (QD) phosphor films, QDlighting devices, and related methods.

2. Background of the Invention

Conventional lighting devices have limited light color characteristicsand poor lighting efficiency. There exists a need for cost-effectivelighting methods and devices exhibiting high color purity, highefficiency, and improved light color characteristics.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to highly efficient, color pure, andcolor tunable quantum dot (QD) lighting methods and devices. The presentinvention is further related to quantum dot films (QD films) and relatedlighting methods and devices. The lighting devices include lightingdisplays for electronic devices. In certain embodiments, the inventionis directed to backlighting units (BLUs) for display devices such asliquid crystal displays (LCUs), televisions, computers, mobile phones,smart phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), gaming devices,electronic reading devices, digital cameras, and the like. The QD filmsof the present invention can be used in any suitable application,including BLUs, down lighting, indoor or outdoor lighting, stagelighting, decorative lighting, accent lighting, museum lighting,highly-specific wavelength lighting for horticultural, biological, andother applications; as well as additional lighting applications whichwill be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art uponinvestigating the invention described herein.

The present invention also includes a quantum dot down-conversion layeror film suitable for use in photovoltaic applications. The QD film ofthe present invention can convert portions of sunlight to lower-energylight which can be absorbed by an active layer of a solar cell, whereinthe converted wavelengths of light could not have been absorbed andconverted to electricity by the active layer without suchdown-conversion by the quantum dot film. Thus, a solar cell employingthe QD film of the present invention can have increased solar conversionefficiency.

The present invention includes a QD film for use as a light source, alight filter, and/or a primary light down-converter. In certainembodiments, the QD film is a primary light source, wherein the QD filmis an electroluminescent film comprising electroluminescent QDs whichemit photons upon electrical stimulation. In certain embodiments, the QDfilm is a light filter, wherein the QDs absorb light having a certainwavelength or wavelength range. The QD film filter can allow passage ofcertain wavelengths or wavelength ranges while absorbing or filteringothers. In certain embodiments, the QD film is a down-converter, wherebyat least a portion of primary light from a primary light source isabsorbed by QDs in, the QD film and re-emitted as secondary light havinga lower energy or longer wavelength than the primary light. In preferredembodiments, the QD film is both a filter and a primary lightdown-converter, whereby a first portion of the primary light is allowedto pass through the QD film without being absorbed by the QDs in the QDfilm, and at least a second portion of the primary light is absorbed bythe QDs and down-converted to secondary light having a lower energy orlonger wavelength than the primary light.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides quantum dot (QD) filmbacklighting units (BLUs). The QD BLU suitably comprises a bluelight-emitting diode (LED) and a QD film, the QD film suitablycomprising a film or layer of a QD phosphor material disposed betweenbarrier layers on each of the top and bottom sides of the QD phosphormaterial layer. Suitably, the LED is coupled to a light guide panel(LGP), and the QD film is disposed between the LGP and the optical filmsof a liquid crystal display (LCD) panel. Disposing the QD film betweenthe LGP and the optical films of the LCD allows for efficient recyclingof blue light and an increased optical path length of blue light withrespect to the QD, thereby allowing for drastic decreases in the QDconcentration required to achieve sufficient brightness in the QDlighting device.

Suitable barrier layers include plastic or glass plates. Suitably, theluminescent QDs emit green light and red light upon down-conversion ofblue primary light from the blue LED to secondary light emitted by theQDs. In preferred embodiments, the BLU is a white light emitting BLU.Preferred embodiments include a first population of QDs which emit redsecondary light and a second population of quantum dots which emit greensecondary light, most preferably wherein the red and greenlight-emitting QD populations are excited by blue primary light toprovide white light. Suitable embodiments further comprise a thirdpopulation of quantum dots which emit blue secondary light uponexcitation. The respective portions of red, green, and blue light can becontrolled to achieve a desired white point for the white light emittedby the device. Exemplary QDs for use in the BLU devices comprise CdSe orZnS. Suitable QDs include core/shell luminescent nanocrystals comprisingCdSc/ZnS, InP/ZnS, PbSe/PbS, CdSe/CdS, CdTe/CdS or CdTe/ZnS. Inexemplary embodiments, the luminescent nanocrystals include an outerligand coating and are dispersed in a polymeric matrix. The presentinvention also provides display systems comprising the QD BLUs.

Suitably, the polymeric matrix surrounding the QDs is a discontinuous,composite matrix comprising at least two materials. Suitably, the firstmatrix material comprises amino polystyrene (APS), and the second matrixmaterial comprises an epoxy. More suitably, the first matrix materialcomprises polyethyleneimine or modified polyethyleneimine (PE), and thesecond matrix material comprises an epoxy. Suitable methods forpreparing the QD phosphor material comprise dispersing a plurality ofluminescent nanocrystals in the first polymeric material to form amixture of the luminescent nanocrystals and the first polymericmaterial. The mixture is cured, and a particulate is generated from thecured mixture. Suitably, a cross-linker is added to the mixture prior tothe curing. In exemplary embodiments, the particulate is generated bygrinding the cured mixture. The particulate is dispersed in the secondpolymeric material to generate the composite matrix, and the materialsare formed into a film and cured. Other suitable methods for preparingthe QD phosphor material comprise dispersing a plurality of luminescentnanocrystals in the first polymeric material to form a mixture of theluminescent nanocrystals and the first polymeric material, adding thesecond material, forming the mixture into a film, and then curing thefilm.

In further embodiments, the present invention provides QD BLUs havingscattering features to promote scattering of primary light from theprimary light source (preferably a blue LED) and increase the opticalpath length of the primary light with respect to the QDs in the QD film,thereby increasing the efficiency of the QD BLU and decreasing thequantity of QDs in the system. Suitable scattering features includescattering beads in the QD film, scattering domains in the host matrix,and/or features formed on the barrier layers or the LGP.

The present invention provides novel QD phosphor materials, QD films,and related lighting methods and devices. Additionally, the QD remotephosphors of the present invention present breakthroughs in QD phosphortechnology based on mechanisms for novel control of QD excitation andprimary light used to excite QDs in the QD phosphor material.

Additional features and advantages of the invention will be set forthin, the description that follows, and in part will be apparent from thedescription, or may be learned by practice of the invention. Theadvantages of the invention will be realized and attained by thestructure and particularly pointed out in the written description andclaims hereof as well as the appended drawings.

It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description andthe following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory and areintended to provide further explanation of the invention, as claimed.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS/FIGURES

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and form a partof the specification, illustrate the present invention and, togetherwith the description, further serve to explain the principles of theinvention and to enable a person skilled in the pertinent art to makeand use the invention.

FIG. 1 shows the tunability of QD absorption and emissioncharacteristics.

FIG. 2 shows a comparison of light color components for conventional andQD-based solid state white light (SSWL) devices.

FIG. 3 shows a CIE chart and color gamuts for the QD BLU, a conventionalBLU, and the NTSC standard.

FIGS. 4A-4D show a prior art Quantum Rail™ remote phosphor package.

FIG. 5 shows a conventional liquid crystal display (LCD) stack.

FIGS. 6A-6C show a QD film BLU and light recycling mechanisms accordingto one embodiment of the present invention.

FIGS. 7A-7C show various primary light source arrangements for the QDlighting device of the present invention.

FIG. 8 illustrates primary light absorbance and secondary light emissionin a QD, in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 9 shows a ligand-coated QD in accordance with the presentinvention.

FIG. 10 shows a QD phosphor material comprising QDs embedded in amatrix, in accordance with the present invention.

FIGS. 11A-11B show ligand and QD film formation methods of the presentinvention.

FIGS. 12A-12B show QD phosphor materials in accordance with the presentinvention.

FIGS. 13A-13B illustrate optical features and mechanisms in accordancewith the present invention.

FIG. 14A-14C illustrate barrier films and materials according to certainembodiments of the present invention.

FIGS. 15A-15I illustrate various exemplary barriers and barrier featuresin accordance with the present invention.

FIGS. 16A-16D illustrate various exemplary optical enhancement featuresin accordance with the present invention.

FIGS. 17A-17B show one QD phosphor material and QD phosphor materialinactive regions of the present invention, according to one embodimentof the present invention.

FIGS. 18A-18C, 19A-19D, and 20A-20D illustrate QD phosphor materials,barriers, and seals, according to certain embodiments of the presentinvention.

FIGS. 21A-21E and 22A-22K illustrate various light guide features inaccordance with certain embodiments of the present invention.

FIGS. 23A-23H, 24A-24H, 25A-25I, and 26A-26G illustrate various spatialarrangements of QDs and scattering features, according to certainembodiments of the present invention.

FIGS. 27A-27C illustrate scattering features and mechanisms forscattering features of the present invention.

FIGS. 28A-28F, 29A-29C, 30A-30C, and 31A-31C illustrate various LGP andbarrier arrangements, and spatial arrangements of QDs and scatteringfeatures, according to certain embodiments of the present invention.

FIGS. 32 and 33A-33C show color tuning and white point generationaccording to certain methods and devices of the present invention.

FIGS. 34-35 show QD film formation methods in accordance with thepresent invention.

FIGS. 36A-36C show exemplary monoepoxy modifiers that can be used toproduce PEI ligands, 1,2-epoxy-3-phenoxypropane is shown in FIG. 36A,1,2-epoxydodecane in FIG. 36B, and glycidyl 4-nonylphenyl ether in FIG.36C.

FIG. 37 illustrates a ligand formation method of the present invention.

FIGS. 38A and 38B show QD phosphor materials in accordance with thepresent invention.

FIGS. 39A-39C show an electroluminescent backlight device including a QDfilm according to an embodiment of the present invention.

The present invention will now be described with reference to theaccompanying drawings. In the drawings, like reference numbers indicateidentical or functionally similar elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides QD lighting devices and QD films for usein lighting applications. It should be appreciated that the particularimplementations shown and described herein are examples of the inventionand are not intended to otherwise limit the scope of the presentinvention in any way. Indeed, for the sake of brevity, conventionalelectronics, manufacturing, semiconductor devices, and quantum dot,nanocrystal, nanowire, nanorod, nanotube, and nanoribbon technologiesand other functional aspects of the systems (and components of theindividual operating components of the systems) may not be described indetail herein.

Color Purity and Tunability

Control of light color emission plays a prominent role in many lightingapplications, including down-lighting and displays. There is a greatneed for methods and devices which allow for precise color point controland adjustability, especially in energy-efficient, mixed-color lightingapplications such as remote phosphor solid-state white lighting (SSWL).The present invention addresses this issue by providing novel mechanismsto toggle individual light color components in mixed-color lightingapplications. The level of precision and control made possible by thepresent invention has yet to be achieved by conventional techniques.Particularly in the field of SSWL lighting, conventional lightingmethods and devices lack the ability to provide highly pure white light,especially high-purity white light which is also highly tunable toexhibit different white points for different lighting applications anddisplay devices. Conventional lighting relics on lackluster filteringtechnology to filter out undesirable light energy rather than addressingthe source of the problem—the light sources. For example, conventionalLCD BLU technology suffers from uncontrollable emission wavelengths andbroad spectral widths which must be filtered out by the LCD colorfilters, resulting in wasted light energy, inefficiency, and highoperating temperatures.

The present invention provides high color purity and tunability of lightbased on the novel QD phosphor materials, QD films, and correspondinglighting methods and devices. Additionally, the QD remote phosphors ofthe present invention present breakthroughs in QD phosphor technologybased on mechanisms for novel control of primary light used to exciteQDs in the QD phosphor material of the present invention. The presentinvention includes novel embodiments in which primary light ismanipulated to control color and brightness, and increase the absorptionof primary light and subsequent emission of secondary light by QDs.

In certain embodiments, the present invention provides a backlightingunit (BLU) for display applications. The BLUs of the present inventioninclude emission-tunable quantum dots (QDs) as a phosphor material, suchas size-tunable QDs. Using a primary light source to excite the QDs, theBLUs can produce light of a pure, saturated color emitted by apopulation of QDs having a uniform size distribution, or light of amixture of different colors emitted by a blend of differently-sizedquantum dots. With this QD size-tunability, unique spectrum engineeringis achieved with a QD BLU having a precisely-defined white point. Asdiscussed in more detail below, the white point of the QD BLU isadjusted by tuning the QD characteristics, including the sizedistribution of multiple QD populations which emit the light colorcomponents of the BLU.

Compared to traditional display phosphors, the QD phosphor of the QD BLUof the present invention exhibits extremely high spectral purity, colorsaturation, color resolution, and color gamut. As shown in FIG. 1, theQDs exhibit precise emission characteristics dependent upon QD size,which can be accurately tuned to provide consistent emissioncharacteristics independent of excitation conditions. The emissionspectrum is defined by a single Gaussian peak, which arises from theband-edge luminescence. The emission peak location is determined by thecore particle size as a direct result of quantum confinement effects.For instance, by adjusting the particle diameter in the range of 2 nmand 15 nm (100 and 102), as shown in FIG. 1, the emission can beprecisely tuned over the entire visible spectrum. FIG. 1 represents theabsorption and emission peaks for nanocrystals of increasing size (from2 nm to 15 nm). The initial peak (lower wavelength) indicates theabsorption wavelength and the later peak (higher wavelength) theemission wavelength in nanometers. With increasing size of thenanocrystals, the absorption and emission peak wavelengths shift fromabout 450 nm to about 700 nm, and can be tuned over this range. Thevertical shaded bars on FIG. 1 indicate visible light wavelengths in theblue 104, green 106, and red 108 ranges. Tunability of the QD size andnarrow spectral width for individual color components allows forachievement of a precise white point or other mixed color using multipledifferent QD populations, irrespective of the primary light sourcewavelength.

Conventional LCD backlights exhibit limited color properties. Forexample, as can be seen in FIG. 2, which shows a spectrum plot ofintensity versus color for a conventional inorganic phosphor backlight(blue LED+YAG phosphor), yellow light 202 from the YAG phosphor isbroad-spectrum, low-intensity yellow light. The result of thisnon-tunable, poor-quality yellow light is wasted light energy and lessthan 10% of NTSC standard color accuracy. To the contrary, the emissionfrom the green and red light-emitting QD phosphor shown in FIG. 2 (greenpeak 204 and red peak 206), according to one example embodiment of thepresent invention, exhibits high-purity, high-intensity, and fullytunable light. This results in higher energy efficiency and greater than100% NTSC color accuracy. QD BLUs of the present invention can be tunedto achieve any target white point with precision accuracy. Not only doesthe narrow emission prevent photon waste at the edges of the visiblespectrum by the eye, but it also allows a superior optimization of colorrendering index and power conversion efficiency.

As can be seen in the standard Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage(CIE) chart shown in FIG. 3, which illustrates the color gamut 302 forone example QD BLU embodiment of the present invention, the QD BLU ofthe present invention provides improvements in color gamut overconventional BLU phosphors such as YAG 304. The high color purity of theindividual red, green, and blue (RGB) color components expands the arrayof potential colors, as illustrated by the larger QD BLU color gamuttriangle 302. Notably, the purity of the individual red 306, green 308,and blue 310 light components allows for a more pure tri-color whitelight.

Color filtering has been a problematic issue in LCD technology since itsdevelopment. Wide spectral emission of conventional BLU phosphorsrequires extensive color filtering to eliminate undesirable emission andprovide pure color components of red, green, and blue light.Conventional LCD color filters rely heavily on various dyes, pigments,and metal oxides to absorb undesirable wavelengths of light produced byconventional BLU phosphors. These absorptive materials suffer from shortlifetime due to severe photodegradation, as well as lifetime variancebetween different color filters for different respective colors, whichcauses different display color components to change at different ratesover time. Such deterioration of absorptive materials adversely affectsemission color, purity of individual color components, white point ofthe display, brightness, and display lifetime. Extensive resources havebeen dedicated to research and development of color filters for LCDs,but it remains difficult to find or produce affordable, high-qualitycolor filters having suitable absorptivity and transmissivity forconventional LCD BLUs.

The QD BLU of the present invention provides a long-needed solution tocolor filtering problems in LCD color filter technology. Unlikeconventional LCD BLUs, the QD BLUs of the present invention are highlyadaptable to existing LCD color filters, and can be accurately tuned forcompatibility with a wide variety of different LCD color filters ofdifferent display devices. With the QD BLU of the present invention,existing LCD color filters can be chosen based on availability, quality,cost, layer thickness, etc., rather than tailored to be compatible withconventional BLU emission characteristics. Individual light colorcomponents of the QD BLU phosphor can be precisely tailored to emit atvery specific wavelengths of light and very narrow spectral widthscompatible with the chosen color filters. With such narrow spectralwidths and emission tunability, an additional benefit of the presentinvention is improved lifetime of display color filters. The narrowspectral emission of the QD phosphor requires less absorption by theabsorptive color filter materials, resulting in less deterioration andincreased lifetime of the color filters.

As can be seen in FIG. 1, the emission spectrum of the QD phosphormaterial of the present invention is tunable to fit a variety of colorfilters for different lighting devices. With less light filtered fromindividual light color components, less light energy is absorbed by thefilter material compared to traditional BLU sources such as YAG.

Brightness and Efficiency

Energy efficiency is a critical feature in the field of consumerelectronics, and displays consume a large portion of device power.Display power consumption highly affects many features of electronicdisplay devices, including battery requirements in mobile displayapplications, as well as device operating temperature and panellifetime, especially in large display applications. In conventionaldisplay devices, a majority of the energy consumed by the device isdedicated to the display, particularly the display BLU. The QD BLUs ofthe present invention exhibit breakthrough efficiency improvements indisplay BLUs.

The QD BLU of the present invention provides improved efficiency overconventional BLUs due to the efficient use of primary light, resultingin a reduction in wasted light energy. Conventional BLU phosphorsexhibit broad emission spectra, so a large amount of the light producedis filtered out by color filters (e.g., LCD color filters) to producesharper color components (e.g., RGB). This broad spectrum filteringresults in wasted light energy, decreased brightness, and higher displayoperating temperatures. With the QD BLU of the present invention and thenarrow bandwidth emission of the size-tuned quantum dots, minimal lightproduced by the phosphor material is wasted via color filtering.Drastically reduced light filtering is required with the QD phosphors ofthe present invention, as compared with a conventional phosphormaterial. As explained above with respect to FIG. 2, the narrow emissionspectrum of the QD phosphor material results in more light being emittedthrough the color filter rather than filtered out, and thus increasedbrightness and efficiency. The increased color purity and lightingefficiency of the QD BLU of the present invention presents anenergy-efficient increase in the overall display brightness.

Some development in quantum dot phosphors has been made, for example, asdisclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,374,807, 7,645,397, 6,501,091, 6,803,719,U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/799,813, filed Apr. 29, 2010, U.S.patent application Ser. No. 12/076,530, filed Mar. 19, 2008, U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/609,736, filed Oct. 30, 2009, and U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/609,760, filed Oct. 30, 2009, the disclosure ofeach of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Forexample, the Quantum Rail™ (QR) available from Nanosys™, shown in FIGS.4A-4D, includes a QD-based remote phosphor package 400 which providescolor quality improvements over conventional BLUs. As explained infurther detail below, the novel QD BLUs of the present invention presentadvantages over conventional BLUs as well as QR phosphor packages.

In conventional BLUs encompassing blue LEDs, such as YAG-coated blue LEDBLUs, conventional phosphors are used to convert a portion of the bluelight to red and green to cover the entire visible spectrum, and thephosphors are commonly placed in direct contact with the LEDs. In theNanosys™ Quantum Rail™ (QR) BLU referenced above, luminescent QDs aremixed into a polymer to form the active material 404, and the activematerial is sealed 406 in a glass capillary tube 402 to form the QR 400.As shown in FIG. 4A, the QR package is disposed adjacent the LEDs 401,between the LEDs 401 and the light guide panel (LGP) 403 of the BLU. Dueto the organic constituents surrounding the quantum dots whichdeteriorate under high operating temperatures and high light flux, theQDs have limited lifetimes when exposed to the heat and light flux foundin close proximity to LEDs, thereby limiting the QR BLU lifetime.Additional issues with the QRs include lack of control and accuracy inpositioning the QRs adjacent the LEDs, reliability and optical issuesassociated with adhering or gluing the QRs in place, and susceptibilityto mechanical damage.

FIG. 5 shows a conventional LED backlit LCD display 500, which showscomponents of the BLU 512, including the brightness enhancing films(BEFs) 501, diffuser layer 504, LGP 506, LED housing 510, and reflector508.

According to one exemplary embodiment of the present invention, as shownin FIGS. 6A and 6B, a lighting device 600 (e.g., a display BLU)comprises a QD film remote phosphor package 602 which includes a filmcomprising QD phosphor material 604 sandwiched or disposed between twobarrier layers 620, 622. The QD film is disposed above a light guidepanel (LGP), and at least one primary light source 610 is locatedadjacent the LGP, whereby the primary light source is in opticalcommunication with the QD phosphor material. When primary light 614 isemitted by the primary light source, the primary light travels throughthe LGP and toward the QD film. The QD film and the primary light sourceare disposed such that the primary light travels through the QD phosphormaterial of the remote phosphor package and excites the QDs in the QDphosphor material, thereby causing secondary light emission from the QDfilm. Light emitted from the remote phosphor package and the lightingdevice can include secondary light emitted by the phosphor material,primary light which passes completely through the QD film, or preferablya combination thereof. In the exemplary embodiment shown in FIGS. 6A and6B, the QD film BLU 600 further comprises a bottom reflective film orlayer 608, one or more light extraction layers (not shown in FIG. 6)near the top and/or bottom of the LGP, and one or morebrightness-enhancing films 601 disposed over the QD film, such that theQD film is sandwiched or disposed between the BEFs (e.g., reflectivepolarizer films or prism films) and the LGP having a reflective film andone or more light extraction layers.

As shown in the example embodiment of FIG. 6A-6C, the lighting methodsand devices of the present invention are aimed at positioning thequantum dot down conversion layer in a more favorable position,preferably in the form of a QD film layer 602 comprising a QD phosphorlayer 604 disposed between the reflective film 608 and the BEFs 601 of aLCD BLU—e.g., between the reflective film 608 and the LGP 606, orbetween the LGP 606 and the BEFs 601 of a LCD BLU. Suitably, the QD film602 comprises a top barrier 620 and a bottom barrier 622, wherein thesebarriers house and protect the QD phosphor material 604 from externalenvironmental conditions. With the QD film disposed at such locationadjacent to the LGP, rather than near the LEDs 610, the light flux andtemperature at the QD phosphor material will be considerably lower,resulting in longer lifetimes for the QD phosphor material and the QDBLU. Additionally, film assembly installation is simplified andmechanical damage issues are resolved. Many additional advantages areachieved with the QD film embodiments of the present invention, asdiscussed in more detail below.

QD Phosphor Quantity Reduction

Much to the surprise of the inventors, the disposition of the QD filmbetween certain layers of a LCD results in phenomenal and highlyunexpected improvements in brightness of secondary light emitted by theQDs, allowing for a very high reduction in optical density (i.e.,reduction in the quantity of QDs). With less QDs required to achieve adesired level of brightness and white point, the optical density of theQD phosphor material (or QD concentration) can be decreased drastically(e.g., as much as 15× or 25× reduction) compared to QR lighting devices,thus larger display surface areas can be achieved using less QDs, andcost is drastically reduced in proportion to the QD quantity reduction.By disposing the QDs between the BEFs 601 and the LGP 606 of a display,the effective path length of the primary light is greatly increased withrespect to the QD phosphor material. As shown in FIG. 6B, primary light614 is essentially recycled by BEFs 601 and reflective film 608 at thebottom of the LGP, as well as reflection and scattering caused byadditional features such as the diffusion features or layers anddifferences in refractive indices of the display layers and the QD film.This recycling causes the primary light 614 to pass through the QD film602 repeatedly at a variety of angles before a portion of the primarylight eventually escapes the BLU. The path length of the primary light614 in the QD phosphor material is increased due to the high-angle raystransmitted through the QD phosphor material, resulting in more QDabsorption (and reemission) in the QD film.

The path length of the primary light and QD absorption can be furtherincreased by manipulation of primary light according to systems andmethods of the present invention. In certain embodiments, thismanipulation and increased absorption of primary light is achieved withthe addition of scattering features such as scattering beads orparticles associated with the QD film, as shown in FIGS. 27A and 27B.Since QD phosphors are isotropic emitters by nature, they emit light inall directions from the QD surface. Unlike QDs, excitation light sourcessuch as LEDs emit light more unidirectionally since they are Lambertianemitters, meaning the intensity of light emitted from the LED is highestat the normal to the emission surface and decreases at increasing anglesaway from the normal. The combination of Lambertian primary lightemitters and isotropic secondary emitters can cause many problems,including unidirectional primary light and low QD absorbance, lowefficiency, high QD quantity requirements, and non-uniform color andbrightness distribution-both across the display surface area and fromvarious viewing-angles. Methods and devices of the present inventionimprove color uniformity and brightness uniformity, increase efficiency,and reduce QD quantity requirements. With the uniform emission directionof primary and secondary light and the increased QD absorbance ofprimary light made possible by the present invention, the overall lightemitted from the QD BLU has more predictable characteristics, therebyallowing for improved control over color and other emissioncharacteristics of the QD BLU.

This highly efficient use of primary light allows for a reduction inboth the quantity of QDs and the amount of primary light required tocreate a desired emission brightness and white point. By manipulatingthe primary light according to the methods and devices of presentinvention, precise control of the primary and secondary light componentsemitted by the device can be achieved. Unlike traditional methods forincreased remote phosphor emission, this improved control of lightcomponents can be achieved without increasing the amount of primarylight required, and without increasing the amount of QD phosphormaterial. Surprisingly, and most notably, this effect can be achievedeven with a significant decrease in the QD quantity. The novelembodiments of the present invention allow for an unexpected reductionin quantum dots (e.g., 10-25× reduction)—required to produce a desiredbrightness and white point for a QD film layer according to the presentinvention.

QDs offer many benefits as phosphors for BLUs. However, due to the highcost of display-quality QD phosphor production, applications of QDphosphors are usually limited to low phosphor quantity applications suchas molecular labeling. The QD BLUs of the present invention provide QDphosphor BLU embodiments having a low quantity of QDs in the QDphosphor. Minimizing the quantity of QDs required in a QD BLU system isdesirable for many reasons. In addition to the high cost of QD massproduction, QD phosphors are highly sensitive to environmentalconditions. QD quantity reduction simplifies integration of QDs withother materials, and reduces the amount of non-QD materials required ina QD BLU system. For example, less QDs will reduce the quantity ofnecessary matrix materials, barrier materials, and primary light,thereby making the QD BLU system smaller, thinner, lighter, and moreefficient. This reduction in materials greatly reduces the productioncost of QD BLUs, making QD BLUs cost-competitive with conventionaldisplay BLUs. The reduction in QDs also allows for QD BLUs for largerdisplays and creates the possibility of using QD phosphor materials overan increased surface area, such as in QD film BLUs according to certainembodiments of the present invention, as described in more detail below.Notably, unlike conventional QD phosphors, the QD film of the presentinvention has a surface area which is much larger than the surface areaof the primary lights,

Color and Brightness Uniformity

As an additional advantage of the present invention, the spatialconfiguration of the QD film provides improvements in brightness andcolor uniformity across the display viewing plane. Due to the increasedsurface area of the QD phosphor material and the location of thephosphor disposed evenly over the LGP surface area, brightness and coloruniformity issues associated with the QR BLU are eliminated.Conventional display BLUs are highly engineered to provide uniform lightdistribution over the display viewing plane, and the QD BLU of thepresent invention includes a QD film advantageously integrated betweenthe LGP and BEF to make use of the high uniformity of primary lightemitted from the LGP. For example, in white light QD film BLUembodiments of the present invention, the white point can be moreprecisely controlled due to the uniformity, control, and predictabilityof both primary light and secondary light emitted by the QDs. Theprimary light characteristics at the primary light source arenon-uniform and difficult to control. With the QD film disposed as alayer of the BLU stack, as in the present invention, the primary lightcharacteristics at the point of interaction with the QDs is more uniformand predictable due to the uniform dispersion of primary lightthroughout the LGP and upon transmission out of the LGP. Additionally,the surface area of primary light emission from the LGP is much largerthan the small surface area of light emission near the primary lightsource. Thus, the QD film BLU improves predictability, uniformity, andcontrol of QD absorbance and emission, as well as overall light emissionfrom the lighting device.

Dispersion of primary light in the QD phosphor material improvesuniformity of directional emission between primary and secondary light,thereby allowing for more uniform emission and brightness of all colorsof light emitted by the QD BLU. Additionally, diffusion in the QDphosphor material in the QD film will enable elimination of the externaldiffusion layer, thereby decreasing device thickness.

Temperature Reduction and Lifetime Improvement

QDs are highly sensitive to temperature. In the QR BLU referenced above,the remote phosphor package is disposed adjacent and very near theprimary light source, resulting in higher operating temperatures seen bythe QDs. The QD lighting devices and methods of the present inventionallow for placement of the QD phosphor materials further from theprimary light source, thereby greatly reducing the QD operatingtemperature and addressing problems stemming from the temperaturesensitivity of the QD phosphor material. With the reduction in primarylight required to cause secondary emission from the QDs, another benefitof the present invention includes increased efficiency and lower energyand operating temperature requirements of the QD BLU system and theoverall display device. Additionally, due to the decreased density ofQDs per unit area in the QD film embodiment, light flux can be reducedsignificantly (e.g., 100×) compared to QR BLUs. Thus, the QD film BLU ofthe present invention improves the QD phosphor stability, integrity, andlifetime.

Manufacturing. Lighting Device Integration, and Mechanical Integrity

Integration and alignment is improved and made easier with the QD filmof the present invention, and the QD film is more compatible withexisting display features including planar display layers such as LGPs,optical films, diffuser films, color filter films, polarizer films, andmask films. Integration and alignment can be difficult in QR BLUembodiments as well as conventional BLUs. For example, dimensionalcontrol of QR packaging can impair alignment of the QRs in the BLU andinterfere with control and predictability of the direction in whichprimary light is emitted. In the QD film embodiment of the presentinvention, optically connecting the primary light source and the remotephosphor package is simplified and made easier due to the remotephosphor configuration and location in the BLU. Compared to QR BLUs, theQD film of the present invention improves integration for large displaysand allows for larger displays comprising QD BLUs. QR. BLUs can bedifficult to incorporate properly into large displays due to therequirement of either more QRs or longer QRs, Tight dimensional controlis difficult to achieve in QR production, especially for QRs having longlengths. Also, alignment of QRs for large display sizes is challengingfrom a manufacturing perspective due to the longer length required foralignment of QRs. In the QD film of the present invention, improvedalignment of the primary light source and the QD phosphor presents thepossibility of larger QD BLU displays. With the fully-compatible,process-ready QD film of the present invention, existing or conventionalalignment techniques can be employed in aligning the primary lightsource with the light transmission layer, including existing toolingassemblies and techniques for LED-LGP alignment. Additionally, since theQD phosphor material can be distributed evenly over the entire viewingplane, the QD film allows for embodiments wherein the primary lightsource is mounted on the back side of the display, rather than or inaddition to edge alignment of the primary light source.

Compared to QR BLUs and conventional display BLUs, the QD film BLU ofthe present invention provides many added benefits including ease of BLUmanufacturing and integration into display devices. While QRs presentchallenging issues associated with the phosphor package production,including filling small capillaries 402 with a phosphor material 404 andsealing the small capillaries with an end seal 406, convenientroll-to-roll manufacturing is possible with the QD film BLU of thepresent invention. This allows for convenient large-scale roll-to-rollprocessing using conventional film line processing techniques, wherebyQD films and packaging can be manufactured and cut to size, then furtherprocessed. Roll-to-roll processing techniques similar to those used intape-coating can be employed. The QD phosphor material can be depositedby painting, spraying, solvent-spraying, wet-coating, and additionalcoating and deposition methods known to those of ordinary skill in theart. The planar layer structure of the QD film package is compatiblewith existing display features including planar display layers such asLGPs and LCD filters, polarizers, and glass planes. This planarstructure reduces spatial alignment and coupling issues associated withQRs and conventional phosphors. Additionally, the uniformity in phosphordensity over the entire display surface area provides greaterpredictability and control between various devices, thereby simplifyingadaptation of the BLU of the present invention for different lightingapplications and devices.

As an added benefit, the QD film allows for the elimination of certainlayers in display BLUs, such as diffusion layers, as discussed in moredetail below. This further simplifies manufacturing and allows forthinner lighting devices.

The QD film embodiment of the present invention provides forimprovements in mechanical integrity of the QD remote phosphorpackaging. Compared to QR remote phosphors, the QD film finds addedstrength with the increased surface area for light flux, strongerbarrier materials, and disposition between existing planar layers of adisplay which act as additional mechanical protective barriers.

The QD film of the present invention provides enhanced efficiency overQR phosphor packages due to the decrease in loss of primary light madepossible by the present invention. In QR BLUs, difficulties associatedwith alignment and optical coupling of the primary light source and theQR can cause light from the primary source to be wasted as the primarylight is reflected off of the QR or otherwise escapes into theenvironment, or undesirably transmits into the LGP and must be filteredout by the display. Elimination of integration issues with the QD filmembodiment of the present invention increases predictability and controlof the primary light, thereby greatly decreasing the amount of wastedprimary light and improving device efficiency.

QD Film Features and Embodiments

In certain embodiments, the present invention is related to displaydevices. As used herein, a display device refers to any system with alighting display. Such devices include, but are not limited to, devicesencompassing a liquid crystal display (LCD), televisions, computers,mobile phones, smart phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), gamingdevices, electronic reading devices, digital cameras, and the like.

While specific embodiments described herein refer to BLUs for displaydevices, the QD films of the present invention can be used in anysuitable application, including but not limited to down lighting, indooror outdoor lighting, stage lighting, decorative lighting, accentlighting, museum lighting, and highly-specific wavelength lighting forhorticultural, biological, or other applications, as well as additionallighting applications which will be apparent to those of ordinary skillin the art upon investigating the invention described herein.

As used herein, the “display” or “display panel” of the lighting displaydevice includes all layers and components specifically related to thedisplay function of the device, including display light sources,phosphor materials, light guide panels (LGPs), diffuser materials andlayers, reflector materials and layers, optical materials and layerssuch as brightness-enhancing films (BEFs). PCB panels for lightingcontrol, color filters, polarizing prisms, polarizing filters, glassfilms, protective films, and the like. The “viewing plane” of thedisplay, as referred to herein, is the portion of the display outputseen by the user or observer of the display device.

As used herein, a “backlighting unit” (BLU) refers to the portion of thedisplay which generates light for the lighting display device, includingprimary and secondary light. Components of the BLU will typicallyinclude, but are not restricted to, one or more primary light sources,the QD film, one or more LGP, BEFs, diffuser layers, reflective films,related components, and the like.

The primary light source is optically coupled with the phosphor materialof the invention, such that the primary and secondary sources are inoptical communication with one another. As used herein, the terms“optically coupled” and “optically connected” refer to elementsconnected by light, such as primary light, whereby light can transmitfrom a first element to the second element to which the first element isoptically coupled or connected. The primary light source can include anylight source capable of creating secondary light emission from thesecondary light source (the QD phosphor). An appropriate primary lightsource will have an excitation energy capable of exciting the QDs of theQD phosphor material, thereby initiating secondary light emission. Anideal primary light source will also exhibit high efficiency, lowoperating temperatures, high flux, and high brightness. Additionalconsiderations for choosing the primary light source can includeavailability, cost, size, tolerance, emission color and purity, spectralwidth, direction of emitted light, lifetime, quality, consistency offeatures, and compatibility with the phosphor package, the BLU, and thedisplay device. The primary light source can be any suitable lightsource, such as a LED, a blue or ultraviolet sources such as blue or UVLEDs, a laser, an are lamp, a black-body light source, and other solidstate light sources. Preferred embodiments will include a LED primarylight source. Preferably, the primary light source is a blue or UV lightsource, most preferably a blue LED which emits in the range of 440-470nm, more preferably 450-460. For example, the primary light source canbe a GaN LED such as a GaN LED which emits blue light at a wavelength of450 nm.

In preferred embodiments, a portion of the blue light emitted by theblue primary light source will be apportioned to absorbance andreemission by the QDs, and a portion of the blue primary light willfunction as a blue light component of the light emitted by the QD BLUand the display device. In these embodiments, light emitted by the QD BUwill include a mixture of primary light from the primary source andsecondary light emitted from the QDs upon absorbance and reemission.

While reference is made to a single primary light source throughout thisapplication, such singularity is referred to merely for the sake ofsimplicity in the description, and embodiments having more than oneprimary light source are also implied. As will be understood by personshaving ordinary skill in the relevant art, the invention may compriseeither a single primary light source or a plurality of primary lightsources, depending on the requirements of the particular embodiment orapplication. Additionally, the one or more primary light sources can bedisposed along the edge of the display and/or below the various displaylayers (e.g., behind the LGP), as explained in more detail below.

The BLUs of the present invention can include any number, arrangement,spacing, and location of primary light sources, including edge-litand/or rear-lit arrangements, as shown in FIGS. 7A-7C, depictingedge-lit (FIG. 7A), rear-lit (FIG. 7B), and combined edge- and rear-lit(FIG. 7C) BLUs. As will be understood by those of ordinary skill in theart, the disposition and quantity of primary light sources 710 willdepend on the requirements of the lighting device, and will include anyconceivable configuration not limited to the embodiments describedherein.

In preferred embodiments, the QD BLU includes a QD film remote phosphorpackage disposed between, and adjacent to layers of the display.Suitably, the QD film is disposed on or above the LGP, suitably betweenthe LGP and one or more optical films of the LCD BLU, such as BEFs. TheQD film includes a QD phosphor material, preferably disposed between oneor more barrier layers on each side of the QD phosphor material.Suitably, the QD film is optically connected to the primary light sourcevia the LGP upon which the QD film is disposed, such that primary lighttravels through the LGP and transmits into the QD film. In preferredembodiments, the QD film comprises one or more scattering features, suchas scattering particles, to enhance secondary light emission, asdescribed in more detail below.

QD Film Remote Phosphor Package

As referred to herein, the “remote phosphor package” or “QD film” of thepresent invention includes the QD phosphor material and packagingmaterials associated therewith, as described in more detail below. Theremote phosphor package of the present invention is “remote” in thesense that the primary light source and the phosphor material areseparate elements, and the phosphor material is not integrated with theprimary light source as a single element. The primary light is emittedfrom the primary light source and travels through one or more externalmedia before reaching the QD phosphor material of the QD film.

The remote phosphor package of the present invention includes a QDphosphor material comprising at least one population of light-emittingquantum dots (QDs), also referred to herein as QD phosphors, secondarylight sources, or secondary light-emitting QDs. As shown in FIG. 8, theQD 813 provides secondary light emission 816 upon down-conversion ofprimary light 814 absorbed by the QD. As shown in FIG. 9, the QDs of thepresent invention suitably comprise a core/shell QD 900, including acore 902, at least one shell 904 coated on the core, and an outercoating including one or more ligands 906, preferably organic polymericligands. In preferred embodiments, the remote phosphor package willcomprise a QD phosphor material 1000, as shown in FIG. 10, the QDphosphor material including QDs 1013 embedded or dispersed in one ormore matrix materials 1030, such that the QD phosphor material comprisesa QD-matrix material composite.

Suitable QDs, ligands, and matrix materials include any such suitablematerials known to those of ordinary skill in the art, including but notlimited to those mentioned herein. As referred to herein, the “QDphosphor material” of the present invention refers to the QD phosphors(i.e., the secondary light-emitting QDs and associated ligands orcoatings) and any matrix materials associated therewith. In preferredembodiments, the QD phosphor material will further comprise one or morescattering features, as described in further detail below.

The present invention provides various compositions comprisingluminescent quantum dots. The various properties of the luminescent QDs,including their absorption properties, emission properties andrefractive indices, can be tailored and adjusted for variousapplications. As used herein, the term “quantum dot” or “nanocrystal”refers to nanostructures that are substantially monocrystalline. Ananocrystal has at least one region or characteristic dimension with adimension of less than about 500 nm, and down to on the order of lessthan about 1 nm. As used herein, when referring to any numerical value,“about” means a value of ±10% of the stated value (e.g. about 100 nmencompasses a range of sizes from 90 nm to 110 nm, inclusive). The terms“nanocrystal,” “quantum dot,” “nanodot,” and “dot,” are readilyunderstood by the ordinarily skilled artisan to represent likestructures and are used herein interchangeably. The present inventionalso encompasses the use of polycrystalline or amorphous nanocrystals.

Typically, the region of characteristic dimension will be along thesmallest axis of the structure. The QDs can be substantially homogenousin material properties, or in certain embodiments, can be heterogeneous.The optical properties of QDs can be determined by their particle size,chemical or surface composition; and/or by suitable optical testingavailable in the art. The ability to tailor the nanocrystal size in therange between about 1 nm and about 15 nm enables photoemission coveragein the entire optical spectrum to offer great versatility in colorrendering. Particle encapsulation offers robustness against chemical andUV deteriorating agents.

Additional exemplary nanostructures include, but are not limited to,nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, branched nanostructures, nanotetrapods,tripods, bipods, nanoparticles, and similar structures having at leastone region or characteristic dimension (optionally each of the threedimensions) with a dimension of less than about 500 nm, e.g., less thanabout 200 nm, less than about 100 nm, less than about 50 nm, or evenless than about 20 nm or less than about 10 nm. Typically, the region orcharacteristic dimension will be along the smallest axis of thestructure. Nanostructures can be, e.g., substantially crystalline,substantially monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous, or acombination thereof.

QDs (or other nanostructures) for use in the present invention can beproduced using any method known to those skilled in the art. Forexample, suitable QDs and methods for forming suitable QDs include thosedisclosed in: U.S. Pat. No. 6,225,198, US Patent Application PublicationNo. 2002/0066401, filed Oct. 4, 2001, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,207,229,6,322,901, 6,949,206, 7,572,393, 7,267,865, 7,374,807, U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 11/299,299, filed Dec. 9, 2005, and U.S. Pat. No.6,861,155, each of which is incorporated by reference herein in itsentirety.

The QDs (or other nanostructures) for use in the present invention canbe produced from any suitable material, suitably an inorganic material,and more suitably an inorganic conductive or semiconductive material.Suitable semiconductor materials include any type of semiconductor,including group II-VI, group III-V, group IV-VI and group IVsemiconductors. Suitable semiconductor materials include, but are notlimited to, Si, Ge, Sn, Se, To, T, B, C (including diamond), P, BN, BP,BAs, AlN, AlP, AlAs, AlSb, GaN, GaP, GaAs, GaSb, InN, InP, InAs, InSb,AlN, AlP, AlAs, AlSb, GaN, GaP, GaAs, GaSb, ZnO, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS,CdSe, CdSeZn, CdTe, HgS, HgSe, HgTe, BeS, BeSe, BeTe, MgS, MgSe, GeS,GeSe, GeTe, SnS, SnSe, SnTe, PbO, PbS, PbSe, PbTe, CuF, CuCl, CuBr, CuI,Si₃N₄, Ge₃N₄, Al₂O₂, (Al, Ga, In)₂ (S, Se, Te)₃, Al₂CO, and appropriatecombinations of two or more such semiconductors.

In certain aspects, the semiconductor nanocrystals or othernanostructures may comprise a dopant from the group consisting of: ap-type dopant or an n-type dopant. The nanocrystals (or othernanostructures) useful in the present invention can also comprise II-VIor III-V semiconductors. Examples of II-VI or III-V semiconductornanocrystals and nanostructures include any combination of an elementfrom Group II, such as Zn, Cd and Hg, with any element from Group VI,such as S, Se, Te, Po, of the Periodic Table; and any combination of anelement from Group III, such as B, Al, Ga, In, and TI, with any elementfrom Group V, such as N, P, As, Sb and Bi, of the Periodic Table. Othersuitable inorganic nanostructures include metal nanostructures. Suitablemetals include, but are not limited to, Ru, Pd, Pt, Ni, W, Ta, Co, Mo,Ir, Re, Rh, Hf, Nb, Au, Ag, Ti, Sn, Zn, Fe, FePt, and the like.

While any method known to the ordinarily skilled artisan can be used tocreate nanocrystal phosphors, suitably, a solution-phase colloidalmethod for controlled growth of inorganic nanomaterial phosphors isused. See Alivisatos, A. P., “Semiconductor clusters, nanocrystals, andquantum dots,” Science 271:933 (1996); X. Peng, M. Schlamp, A.Kadavanich, A. P. Alivisatos, “Epitaxial growth of highly luminescentCdSe/CdS Core/Shell nanocrystals with photostability and electronicaccessibility,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 30:7019-7029 (1997); and C. B. Murray,D. J. Norris M. G. Bawendi, “Synthesis and characterization of nearlymonodisperse CdE (E=sulfur, selenium, tellurium) semiconductornanocrystallites,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 115:8706 (1993), the disclosures ofwhich are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties. Thismanufacturing process technology leverages low cost processabilitywithout the need for clean rooms and expensive manufacturing equipment.In these methods, metal precursors that undergo pyrolysis at hightemperature are rapidly injected into a hot solution of organicsurfactant molecules. These precursors break apart at elevatedtemperatures and react to nucleate nanocrystals. After this initialnucleation phase, a growth phase begins by the addition of monomers tothe growing crystal. The result is freestanding crystallinenanoparticles in solution that have an organic surfactant moleculecoating their surface.

Utilizing this approach, synthesis occurs as an initial nucleation eventthat takes place over seconds, followed by crystal growth at elevatedtemperature for several minutes. Parameters such as the temperature,types of surfactants present, precursor materials, and ratios ofsurfactants to monomers can be modified so as to change the nature andprogress of the reaction. The temperature controls the structural phaseof the nucleation event, rate of decomposition of precursors, and rateof growth. The organic surfactant molecules mediate both solubility andcontrol of the nanocrystal shape. The ratio of surfactants to monomer,surfactants to each other, monomers to each other, and the individualconcentrations of monomers strongly influence the kinetics of growth.

In semiconductor nanocrystals, photo-induced emission arises from theband edge states of the nanocrystal. The band-edge emission fromluminescent nanocrystals competes with radiative and non-radiative decaychannels originating from surface electronic states. X. Peng, et al., J.Am. Chem. Soc. 30:7019-7029 (1997). As a result, the presence of surfacedefects such as dangling bonds provide non-radiative recombinationcenters and contribute to lowered emission efficiency. An efficient andpermanent method to passivate and remove the surface trap states is toepitaxially grow an inorganic shell material on the surface of thenanocrystal. X. Peng, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 30:7019-7029 (1997). Theshell material can be chosen such that the electronic levels are type 1with respect to the core material (e.g., with a larger bandgap toprovide a potential step localizing the electron and hole to the core).As a result, the probability of non-radiative recombination can bereduced.

Core-shell structures are obtained by adding organometallic precursorscontaining the shell materials to a reaction mixture containing the corenanocrystal. In this case, rather than a nucleation-event followed bygrowth, the cores act as the nuclei, and the shells grow from theirsurface. The temperature of the reaction is kept low to favor theaddition of shell material monomers to the core surface, whilepreventing independent nucleation of nanocrystals of the shellmaterials. Surfactants in the reaction mixture are present to direct thecontrolled growth of shell material and ensure solubility. A uniform andepitaxially grown shell is obtained when there is a low lattice mismatchbetween the two materials.

Exemplary materials for preparing core-shell luminescent nanocrystalsinclude, but are not limited to, Si, Ge, Sn, Se, Te, B, C (includingdiamond), P. Co, Au, BN, BP, BAs, AlN, AlP, AlAs, AlSb, GaN, GaP, GaAs,GaSb. InN, InP, InAs, InSb, AlN, AlP, AlAs, AlSb, GaN, GaP, GaAs, GaSb,ZnO, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdSeZn, CdTe, HgS, HgSe, HgTe, BeS,BeSe, BeTe, MgS, MgSe, GeS. GeSe. GeTe, SnS, SnSe, SnTe, PbO. PbS PbSe,PbTe, CuF, CuCl, CuBr, CuI, Si₃N₄, Ge₃N₄, Al₂O₃, (Al, Ga, In)₂ (S, Sc,Te)₃, Al₂CO, and appropriate combinations of two or more such materials.Exemplary core-shell luminescent nanocrystals for use in the practice ofthe present invention include, but are not limited to, (represented asCore/Shell), CdSe/ZnS, InP/ZnS, PbSe/PbS, CdSe/CdS, CdTe/CdS, CdTe/ZnS,as well as others.

In suitable embodiments, CdSe is used as the nanocrystal material, dueto the relative maturity of the synthesis of this material. Due to theuse of a generic surface chemistry, it is also possible to substitutenon-cadmium-containing nanocrystals. Exemplary luminescent nanocrystalmaterials for use in the display BLU device include CdSe or ZnS,including core/shell luminescent nanocrystals comprising CdSe/CdS/ZnS,CdSe/ZnS, CdSeZn/CdS/ZnS, CdS/Zn/ZnS, InP/ZnS, PbSe/PbS, CdSe/CdS,CdTe/CdS or CdTe/ZnS. Most preferably, the quantum dots of the presentinvention will include core-shell QDs having a core comprising CdSe andat least one encapsulating shell layer comprising CdS or Zn-mostpreferably at least one encapsulating shell layer comprising CdS and atleast one encapsulating shell layer comprising ZnS.

The luminescent nanocrystals can be made from a material impervious tooxygen, thereby simplifying oxygen barrier requirements andphotostabilization of the QDs in the QD phosphor material. In exemplaryembodiments, the luminescent nanocrystals are coated with one or moreorganic polymeric ligand material and dispersed in an organic polymericmatrix comprising one or more matrix materials, as discussed in moredetail below. The luminescent nanocrystals can be further coated withone or more inorganic layers comprising one or more material such as asilicon oxide, an aluminum oxide, or a titanium oxide (e.g., SiO₂, Si₂O,TiO₂, or Al₂O₃), to hermetically seal the QDs.

As described in further detail below, the QDs used in the presentinvention will be chosen based on the desired emission properties of thedisplay application for which the QD BLU is used. Preferred QDcharacteristics include high quantum efficiency (e.g., about 90% orgreater), continuous and tunable emission spectrum, and narrow and sharpspectral emission (e.g., less than 40 nm, 30 nm or less, or 20 nm orless full width at half max (FWHM)).

In preferred embodiments, the QDs will include at least one populationof QDs capable of emitting red light and at least one population of QDscapable of emitting green light upon excitation by a blue light source.The QD wavelengths and concentrations can be adjusted to meet theoptical performance required, as discussed in more detail below. Instill other embodiments, the QD phosphor material can comprise apopulation of QDs which absorb wavelengths of light having undesirableemission wavelengths, and reemit secondary light having a desirableemission wavelength. In this manner, the QD film comprises at least onepopulation of color-filtering QDs to further tune the lighting deviceemission and reduce or eliminate the need fir color filtering.

The QDs of the present invention are preferably coated with one or moreligand coatings, embedded in one or more matrix materials, and/or sealedby one or more barrier layers. Such ligands, matrix materials, andbarriers can provide photostability of the QDs and protect the QDs fromenvironmental conditions including elevated temperatures, high intensitylight, external gasses, moisture, and other harmful environmentalconditions. Additional effects can be achieved with these materials,including a desired index of refraction in the host matrix material, adesired viscosity or QD dispersion/miscibility in the host matrixmaterial and other desired effects. In preferred embodiments, the ligandand matrix materials will be chosen to have a sufficiently low thermalexpansion coefficient, such that thermal curing does not substantiallyaffect the QD phosphor material.

The luminescent QDs (or other nanostructures) useful in the presentinvention preferably comprise ligands conjugated to, cooperated with,associated with, or attached to their surface. In preferred embodiments,the QDs include a coating layer comprising ligands to protect the QDsfrom external moisture and oxidation, control aggregation, and allow fordispersion of the QDs in the matrix material. Suitable ligands andmatrix materials, as well as methods for providing such materials, aredescribed herein. Additional suitable ligands and matrix materials, aswell as methods for providing such materials, include any group known tothose skilled in the art, including those disclosed in U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/79,813, filed Feb. 4, 2000, U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/076,530, filed Mar. 19, 2008, U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/609,736, filed Oct. 30, 2009, U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 11/299,299, filed Dec. 9, 2005, U.S. Pat. Nos.7,645,397, 7,374,807, 6,949,206, 7,572,393, and 7,267,875, thedisclosure of each of which is incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety. Additionally, suitable ligand and matrix materials include anysuitable materials in the art.

As explained in more detail in U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/79,813, filed Feb. 4, 2000, suitable ligand structures includemulti-part ligand structures, such as a 3-part ligand, in which thehead-group, tail-group and middle/body-group can each be independentlyfabricated and optimized for their particular function, and thencombined into an ideally functioning complete surface ligand. With thedevelopment of such multi-part ligands, control of the loading densityof the nanocrystals in the matrix can be achieved to optimize quantumyield, optical scattering, tuning of the refractive index, and QDdensity in the host matrix. The ligand molecule can be synthesized usinga generalized technique allowing three separate groups to be synthesizedseparately and then combined.

Preferably, the ligands comprise one or more organic polymeric ligands.Suitable ligands provide efficient and strong-bonding QD encapsulationwith low oxygen permeability, precipitate or segregate into domains inthe matrix material to form a discontinuous dual-phase or multi-phasematrix, disperse favorably throughout the matrix material, and arecommercially available materials or can be easily formulated fromcommercially available materials.

Suitable ligands include, e.g., polymers, glassy polymers, silicones,carboxylic acid, dicarboxylic acid, polycarboxylic acid, acrylic acid,phosphonic acid, phosphonate, phosphine, phosphine oxide, sulfur,amines, amines which combine with epoxides to form an epoxy, monomers ofany of the polymeric ligands mentioned herein, any of the matrixmaterials mentioned herein, monomers of any of the polymeric matrixmaterials mentioned herein, or any suitable combination of thesematerials. Suitably, the QD ligands will include amine-containingorganic polymers such as amino silicone (AMS) (e.g., AMS-242 andAMS-233, sold by Gelest, and GP-998, sold by Genesee Polymers Corp.™);and poly-ether amines such as Jeffamine™. Suitable ligands includeligands having one or more QD-binding moieties such as an amine moietyor a dicarboxylic acid moiety. Exemplary amine ligands include aliphaticamines, such as decylamine or octylamine; and polymeric amines.

In preferred embodiments, the ligand material comprises a pendant aminefunctional polystyrene (referred to herein as amino polystyrene or APS)to coat and provide photostability for the QDs, preventing unwantedchanges in QD emission characteristics. Suitable APS ligands include,for example, copolymers that comprise a styrene monomer and a monomerbearing an amine moiety, preferably a primary amine moiety. An exemplaryAPS ligand is shown in FIG. 11A. As shown in the example embodiment ofFIG. 11A, the APS is synthesized from styrene maleic anhydride (SMA),such as commercially available SMA (e.g., Sartomer™ SMA EF80). Theanhydride is converted to dimethyl ester in quantitative yield, then themethyl ester is transformed by reaction with diamine to amide, whichconcurrently produces a pendant primary amine. Following this reaction,the polymer is purified by precipitation and size-selection can be usedto obtain a suitable molecular weight fraction. In this exampleembodiment for synthesizing the APS ligand, all manipulations wereperformed under a dry, oxygen-free, nitrogen atmosphere using standardSchlenk technique. The reagents, intermediate and APS product werehandled and stored inside a glove box. Hexane, toluene and methanol werede-oxygenated and dried using an MBraun™ MP-SPS solvent system. Theformula weight of the polymers were estimated using a ‘polymer unit’containing 8 styrene monomers and 1 maleic anhydride (or malonatederivatives). To synthesize the styrene maleic dimethylester copolymer(2), the SMA copolymer (1) (150 g) was added to a 2 L, 3-neck roundbottom flask (RBF). Methanol (196 mL) and toluene (275 mL) were measuredwith an addition funnel before addition to the RBF reaction flask.Hydrochloric acid concentrated (3 drops) was added to the RBF and thetemperature was set to 110° C., causing the reaction solution to reflux.After refluxing the reaction solution for 2 days (about 48 hours) theheat was removed and the reaction solution cooled to room temperature.Sample analysis by FTIR spectroscopy revealed that anhydride had beenconverted to ester. The volatiles were removed from the reactionsolution by rotational evaporation. The product was dissolved withdiethyl ether (600 mL) portion-wise, by adding diethyl ether (100 mL),swirling by hand, and decanting into a 2 L separatory funnel. Theproduct was washed with water (5×250 mL) in the separatory funnel. Thevolatiles were again removed by rotational evaporation with a vacuumline until the product was a brittle, white foam that was crushed to apowder. The product was subjected to vacuum until a pressure of lessthan 100 mtorr had been reached for more than 4 hours. The product (142g) was stored in the glove box. Analysis of the isolated product by FTIRindicated ester without anhydride. Next, synthesis of the styrene maleicdiamine copolymer (3) began with the addition of the styrene maleicdimethylester copolymer (2) (140 g) to a 2 L, 3-neck RBF, and the RBFreaction flask was fitted with a reflux condenser and an additionfunnel. Toluene (850 mL) was added and the reaction solution was heatedto 50° C. While the reaction solution was being heated,1,4-diaminobutane (71.0 g) was transferred to a 250 mL Schlenk flask. Onthe Schlenk line, the diaminobutane was washed into the RBF dissolved inmethanol (75 mL total) by cannula. Then the reaction solutiontemperature was increased to 140° C., and the reaction solution wasturbid but stirred freely. The reaction solution was refluxed at 140° C.for 9 days. After refluxing for 6 days, analysis of the sample by FTIRrevealed that the ester had been converted to amide. The reactionsolution was refluxed until day 9 when it was cooled to roomtemperature. For work-up and purification, the reaction solution wastransferred drop-wise to a 5 L, 3-neck RBF that contained 1500 mL ofhexanes. The top phase was decanted, and the product was washed withhexane (500 mL) and the top phase was decanted again. The volatiles wereremoved by vacuum transfer to leave a colorless, brittle foam. The foamwas subjected to vacuum until the pressure was less than 200 mtorr. Theproduct was then dissolved in a 1:1 mixture of toluene and methanol (1L), forming a turbid solution. The solution was filtered into a separateSchlenk flask through a coarse, sintered glass filter using a closedinert-atmosphere filtration system. The solution was added drop-wise to8.0 L of rapidly stirring hexanes in a mechanically stirred 12 L, 3 neckRBF. The addition occurred over about 2 h and caused the polymer toprecipitate. The polymer was washed with hexanes (150 mL) and driedunder vacuum to a pressure of less than 200 mtorr which produced abrittle, white foam. Periodically during the volatiles removal process,the solids were broken-up and scraped off the flask walls to facilitatedrying. The product was subjected to vacuum of less than 100 mtorr forat least 4 h. The resulting product was a brittle, white foam that wascrushed into a white powder (128 g). The Schlenk technique is preferredto synthesize APS that will provide successful stabilization of the QDs.

The APS material provides improvements over conventional materials information of a complete QD coating, photo-stabilization, barrierproperties, curability, ease of deposition, and compatibility withmatrix materials, such as epoxy.

In more preferred embodiments, the ligand material comprises apolyethyleneimine or a modified polyethyleneimine to coat and, e.g.,improve solubility and/or photostability for the QDs, preventingunwanted changes in QD emission characteristics. Preferably, thepolyethyleneimine or modified polyethyleneimine is branched. A modifiedpolyethyleneimine can be conveniently produced by reaction of apolyethyleneimine with another compound, e.g., with an electrophile suchas benzyl bromide, benzyl chloride, or an epoxy. Preferably, a modifiedpolyethyleneimine for use in the invention is produced by reaction of apolyethylenimine with a monoepoxy. Most preferably, a modifiedpolyethyleneimine for use in the invention is produced by reaction of abranched polyethyleneimine with a monoepoxy. The polyethyleneimine canbe reacted with greater than 0 and less than, or equal to 1 equivalentof the monoepoxy per equivalent of primary amine on thepolyethyleneimine. Preferably, the polyethyleneimine is reacted withbetween about 0.05 and about 0.80 equivalent of the monoepoxy perequivalent of primary amine on the polyethyleneimine, more preferablywith between about 0.10 and about 0.75 equivalent of the monoepoxy perequivalent of primary amine, or with between about 0.20 and about 0.75equivalent of the monoepoxy per equivalent of primary amine, e.g., withabout 0.25 equivalent of the monoepoxy per equivalent of primary amine,with about 0.40 equivalent of the monoepoxy per equivalent of primaryamine, with about 0.50 equivalent of the monoepoxy per equivalent ofprimary amine, with about 0.60 equivalent of the monoepoxy perequivalent of primary amine, or with about 0.70 equivalent of themonoepoxy per equivalent of primary amine. Without limitation to anyparticular mechanism, it is thought that the monoepoxy reacts primarilywith free primary amines on the polyethyleneimine, although somereaction with secondary amines of the polyethyleneimine can also occur.Thus, exemplary suitable modified polyethyleneimines include branchedpolymers having a polyethyleneimine backbone, where a portion of theamines have been derivatized, for example, by reaction with a monoepoxy.The percentage of the primary amines that are derivatized optionallyvaries, e.g., from greater than 0% to less than or equal to 100%.Optionally, the percentage of primary amines that are modified isbetween about 5% and about 80%, between about 10% and about 75%, orbetween about 20% and about 70%, e.g., about 25%, about 40%, about 50%,about 60%, or about 70%. Optionally, the amount of monoepoxy used tomodify a polyethyleneimine is between about 0.25 and about 0.875 timesthe weight of the polyethyleneimine that is to be modified, e.g.,between about 0.40 and about 0.70 times the weight of thepolyethyleneimine, e.g., about 0.50 times the weight of thepolyethyleneimine.

A number of monoepoxies are known in the art that are suitable forreaction with polyethyleneimine to produce modified polyethyleneimineligands. Typically, a suitable monoepoxy has a molecular weight lessthan about 1000, preferably less than about 500, and more preferablyless than about 400 or less than about 300. The monoepoxy can include apolar moiety and/or a nonpolar moiety. The monoepoxy can include ahydrocarbon moiety, which can be saturated or unsaturated, e.g., analiphatic or aromatic moiety or a combination thereof. Preferredmonoepoxies for reaction with polyethyleneimine to produce a modifiedpolyethyleneimine ligand include 1,2-epoxy-3-phenoxypropane (MW150.1772), 1,2-epoxydodecane (MW 184.32), and glycidyl 4-nonylphenylether (MW 276.41), shown in FIGS. 36A-36C (respectively).

For case of reference, “PEI” as used herein refers to unmodifiedpolyethyleneimine ligands and to ligands derived from polyethyleneimine,and therefore includes both unmodified and modified polyethyleneimines.

As noted above, modified polyethyleneimines can be synthesized frompolyethyleneimines and monoepoxies. As shown in the example embodimentof FIG. 37, a modified polyethyleneimine is synthesized frompolyethyleneimine, such as a commercially available polyethyleneimine(e.g., Epomin® SP-012 (MW 1200) from Nippon Shokubai Co., Ltd.) andmonoepoxy, such as a commercially available monoepoxy (e.g.,1,2-epoxy-3-phenoxypropane from Sigma-Aldrich). Following synthesis ofthe PEI, ligand exchange with QDs is performed to coat the QDs with thePEI ligand.

In this example embodiment for synthesizing the PEI ligand, theapparatus was set up using a 5 L, 4-neck round bottom flask equippedwith a stirring bar, 1 L addition funnel, hose adapter, thermocouple inthe reaction solution and short path distillation head with receivingflask and thermometer to measure vapor temperature. Additionally thedistillation head was attached to a bubbler containing a one-way valve.Also a valve was placed on the hose between the bubbler and distillationhead. Once the apparatus was connected to a Schlenk line by the hoseadapter, nitrogen gas could be passed into the reaction flask, acrossthe surface of the reaction solution and out the bubbler attached to thedistillation head. Also the one way valve on the bubbler allowed vacuumto be applied to the whole apparatus from the hose adapter withoutpulling air or oil from the bubbler into the reaction flask. Thereaction flask was placed into a heating mantle connected to atemperature controller with thermocouple positioned to measure thereaction solution temperature.

Separately, in a glove box, precipitated CdSe/CdS/ZnS QDs were dissolvedin toluene (using a volume of toluene equal to 20 to 25% of the volumeof QD growth solution), and transferred to a Schlenk flask; total volumeof the QDs and toluene was 2.5 L. Also hexane (540 mL) was transferredto a separate Schlenk flask in the glove box. Toluene and hexane wereobtained from Sigma-Aldrich and used as received.

The apparatus was attached to the Schlenk line on the hose adapter andpolyethyleneimine SP-012 (240 g, from Nippon Shokubai Co., Ltd., used asreceived) was added. While stirring, with the valve on the hose betweenthe distillation head and bubbler open, the apparatus was placed undervacuum to a pressure of less than 300 mtorr and back flushed withnitrogen three times. Then the valve on the hose was closed and1,2-epoxy-3-phenoxypropane (150 g, 1.00 mole, from Sigma-Aldrich, usedas received) was added to the reaction solution by syringe. Toluene (800mL) was transferred by cannula and then added to the reaction flaskafter measurement in the addition funnel. The reaction flask was heatedto 100° C. for 30 minutes. Then the valve on the hose between thedistillation head and bubbler was opened and about 200 ml of distillatewas collected (or about 25% of the toluene) over about half an hour. Thevalve between the distillation head and bubbler was closed and thesolution of QDs dissolved in toluene was removed from the glove box andtransferred into the addition funnel by cannula. Then the solution ofQDs in toluene was added to the reaction flask over 15 to 30 minutes.Upon completion of QD/toluene addition, the reaction solution was heatedat 100° C. for 30 minutes. Then the valve on the line between thedistillation head and bubbler was opened and about 750 mL of distillatewas collected (or about 25% of the toluene). Following distillatecollection, the distillation head was removed and the reaction flasksealed with a stopper. The reaction solution was cooled to 60° C. Hexanewas transferred into the addition funnel by cannula from the Schlenkflask and added to the reaction solution at a moderate rate whilestirring. Upon complete mixing, the stirring was ceased and the solutionallowed to settle as it cooled to room temperature. The relativelycolorless upper phase was carefully removed by cannula leaving theintensely colored lower phase (containing the QDs with the PEI ligand)in the reaction flask. In this example, approximately 0.50 equivalent of1,2-epoxy-3-phenoxypropane per equivalent of primary amines on thepolyethyleneimine was used to modify the polyethyleneimine.

In a related example embodiment, a PEI ligand was synthesized bymodifying polyethyleneimine basically as described above but withglycidyl 4-nonylphenyl ether. In this example, approximately 0.25equivalent of glycidyl 4-nonylphenyl ether per equivalent of primaryamines on the polyethyleneimine was used to modify thepolyethyleneimine. This exemplary glycidyl 4-nonylphenyl ether-modifiedPEI gave similar solubility behavior when exchanged onto QDs as did theexemplary 1,2-epoxy-3-phenoxypropane-modified PEI while preserving moreof the primary amines, which can result in better binding of the ligandto the QDs and subsequent improvement in quantum yield.

The PEI ligands provide improvements over conventional materials information of a complete QD coating, photo-stabilization, barrierproperties, curability, case of deposition, and compatibility withmatrix materials, such as epoxy. Other advantages of the PIE materialsover conventional materials and APS materials include: polyethyleneimineis inexpensive and readily available from many sources in pure enoughform to be used directly in modification and ligand exchange reactions;water and oxygen impurities in the polyethyleneimine can be easilyremoved from the reaction flask prior to ligand exchange withoutrequiring any additional equipment; PEI ligand exchange can be readilyaccomplished on a large amount of nanocrystals in the course of a fewhours; various nanocrystals (e.g., QDs that emit green, red or a mixtureof the two) can be exchanged easily using similar procedures; theexchanged nanocrystal-PEI combination can be removed from the reactionsolvent by precipitation with hexane and most of the solvent removed bysimple decantation; the nanocrystal-PEI combination can be produced witha high concentration of nanocrystals (for example, up to thirty timesthe concentration used in the final formulation), making the extremelyconcentrated mixture easy to formulate, store, and/or ship; thenanocrystal-PEI combination does not contain volatile solvent so can bestored or shipped safely; the nanocrystal-PEI combination disperses wellinto commercially available epoxies so can be easily mixed with acurable matrix, for example, immediately before film fabrication; andsince the matrix is relatively common and commercially available theviscosity of the pro-cure mixture can be easily modified to meetrequirements for film coating and fabrication. In addition to thesefactors, modification of polyethyleneimine with a monoepoxy such as,2-epoxy-3-phenoxypropane adds other desirable properties such as:improved precipitation from hexane; improved solubility of the PEI-QDs,resulting in smaller, more predictable nanocrystal domains in the curedmatrix and fewer large insoluble particle defects in the resulting QDfilm; a more fluid exchanged nanocrystal-PEI combination that makesmixing more facile at the stage immediately preceding coating the film;and decreased number of QDs required during production of the film toachieve a desired level of brightness and white point. Exemplarydesirable characteristics for modified polyethyleneimine ligands (whichcan influence choice of monoepoxy or other reagent employed to producethe modified ligand) thus include: enhanced solubility in the exchangereaction solvent (which results in fewer insoluble clusters); asufficient number of remaining primary amines to bind to the QDs; andenhanced dispersion in the epoxy (or other) matrix, producing fewervisual large particle defects and less tendency to settle in the epoxyduring storage (before addition of the cross-linker and curing of thematrix). Further, desirable modified polyethyleneimine ligands aretransparent, do not reduce quantum yield via energy transfer or lightabsorption, do not yellow/brown during final device operation, and donot photoreact and cause increased degradation of device performanceover time.

In certain embodiments, the QD ligands can include a polymerizable group(i.e., a functional group which can react to set the polymer) toincorporate the ligand (whether bound to the nanostructure or providedin excess) into a polymeric matrix. For example, a (meth)acrylate groupcan polymerize when initiated by radicals, and an epoxide group canpolymerize when initiated by cationic or anionic initiators. Forexample, in a preferred embodiment, epoxide groups polymerize wheninitiated by amines.

Generally, the polymeric ligand is bound to a surface of thenanostructure. Not all of the ligand material in the composition need bebound to the nanostructure, however. The polymeric ligand can beprovided in excess, such that some molecules of the ligand are bound toa surface of the nanostructure and other molecules of the ligand are notbound to the surface of the nanostructure. The excess ligand canoptionally be polymerized into a matrix in which the nanostructure isembedded. The composition can include a solvent, a cross-linker, and/oran initiator (e.g., a radical or cationic initiator), to facilitate suchincorporation.

The phosphor material of the present invention further comprises amatrix material in which the QDs are embedded or otherwise disposed. Thematrix material can be any suitable host matrix material capable ofhousing the QDs. Suitable matrix materials will be chemically andoptically compatible with the BLU components, including the QDs and anysurrounding packaging materials or layers. Suitable matrix materialsinclude non-yellowing optical materials which are transparent to boththe primary and secondary light, thereby allowing for both primary andsecondary light to transmit through the matrix material. In preferredembodiments, the matrix material completely surrounds the QDs andprovides a protective barrier which prevents deterioration of the QDscaused by environmental conditions such as oxygen, moisture, andtemperature. The matrix material can be flexible in applications where aflexible or moldable QD film is desired. Alternatively, the matrixmaterial can include a high-strength, non-flexible material.

Preferred matrix materials will have low oxygen and moisturepermeability, exhibit high photo- and chemical-stability, exhibitfavorable refractive indices, and adhere to the barrier or other layersadjacent the QD phosphor material, thus providing an air-tight seal toprotect the QDs. Preferred matrix materials will be curable with UV orthermal curing methods to facilitate roll-to-roll processing. Thermalcuring is most preferred.

Suitable matrix materials for use in QD phosphor material of the presentinvention include polymers and organic and inorganic oxides. Suitablepolymers for use in the matrixes of the present invention include anypolymer known to the ordinarily skilled artisan that can be used forsuch a purpose. In suitable embodiments, the polymer will besubstantially translucent or substantially transparent. Suitable matrixmaterials include, but are not limited to, epoxies, acrylates,norborene, polyethylene, poly(vinyl butyral):poly(vinyl acetate),polyurea, polyurethanes; silicones and silicone derivatives including,but not limited to, amino silicone (AMS), polyphenylmethylsiloxane,polyphenylalkylsiloxane, polydiphenylsiloxane, polydialkylsiloxane,silsesquioxanes, fluorinated silicones, and vinyl and hydridesubstituted silicones; acrylic polymers and copolymers formed frommonomers including, but not limited to, methylmethacrylate,butylmethacrylate, and laurylmethacrylate; styrene-based polymers suchas polystyrene, amino polystyrene (APS), and poly(acrylonitrile ethylenestyrene) (AES); polymers that are crosslinked with difunctionalmonomers, such as divinylbenzene; cross-linkers suitable forcross-linking ligand materials, epoxides which combine with ligandamines (e.g., APS or PEI ligand amines) to form epoxy, and the like.

The QDs used the present invention can be embedded in a polymeric matrix(or other matrix material) using any suitable method, for example,mixing the nanocrystals in a polymer and casting a film, mixing thenanocrystals with monomers and polymerizing them together, mixing thenanocrystals in a sol-gel to form an oxide, or any other method known tothose skilled in the art. As used herein, the term “embedded” is used toindicate that the luminescent nanocrystals are enclosed or encasedwithin the polymer that makes up the majority component of the matrix.It should be noted that luminescent nanocrystals are suitably uniformlydistributed throughout the matrix, though in further embodiments theycan be distributed according to an application-specific uniformitydistribution function.

The ligands and/or matrix material can also include a cross-linkerand/or an initiator, e.g., for incorporation of the ligand andnanostructures into a matrix. In one class of embodiments, thecross-linker is an epoxy cross-linker.

A discontinuous or multi-phase encapsulation material is preferred sothat the QDs are protected in domains of a hydrophobic material which isimpermeable to moisture and oxygen. FIG. 12A shows a QD phosphormaterial comprising an AMS-epoxy emulsion, and FIG. 12B shows anAPS-epoxy QD phosphor material. In preferred embodiments, the matrixmaterial comprises an epoxy. Preferably, the QD ligands comprise APS andthe matrix material comprises epoxy, whereby the QD phosphor materialcomprises domains of APS-coated QDs dispersed throughout the epoxymatrix to form a multi-phase material, as shown in FIG. 12B. Mostpreferably, the QD ligands comprise PEI and the matrix materialcomprises epoxy, whereby the QD phosphor material comprises domains ofPEI-coated QDs dispersed throughout the epoxy matrix to form amulti-phase material. FIG. 38A shows a polyethyleneimine-epoxy QDphosphor material, and FIG. 38B shows a modified polyethyleneimine-epoxyQD phosphor material.

Preferred QD phosphor materials include APS or PEI and epoxies, such asLoctite™ epoxy E-30CL or epoxies from Epic Resins (Palmyra, Wis.) wherethe viscosity specification for part A is 15 to 40 K centipoise (cP)(preferably 30 to 40 K cP) and the viscosity specification for part B is3 to 25 K cP (preferably 7.5 to 10 K cP). Preferably, the QD phosphormaterial includes QDs comprising APS or PEI ligands and one or moreepoxide polymer that polymerizes and crosslinks when mixed with the APSor PEI, wherein excess amines cross-link the epoxy.

In a preferred method of forming the QD phosphor material, the QDs areprovided in a solvent (e.g., toluene), and the QD-solvent mixture isadded to a mixture of the ligand material to coat the QDs. Preferably,the first (ligand) material comprises an amine-containing polymer,suitably APS, or most preferably PEI.

In a preferred embodiment, a QD-toluene mixture is added to a mixture ofAPS and toluene to provide APS-coated QDs. A matrix material is added tothe solvent mixture, followed by evaporation of the solvent. Preferably,an epoxide polymer is added to the mixture, whereby the epoxide iscross-linked by amines of the excess ligand material. Due to theimmiscibility of the APS in the epoxy. APS-coated QDs are located inspatial domains throughout the epoxy matrix material. The QD phosphormaterial is formed from this QD-APS-epoxy mixture, which is preferablymixed with additional base epoxy material, which is wet-coated onto asubstrate and cured to form the QD film, as shown in FIG. 12B. Themixture can be coated on a barrier layer or the LGP and thermally or UVcured. Thermal curing is preferred. The curing can be performed inphases. For example, the QD phosphor material can be formed in layers,wherein each layer is cured individually. Preferably, the QD film isdeposited on a bottom barrier film and partially cured to the bottombarrier film, then a top barrier film is deposited on the QD material,and the QD material curing is then continued.

In a more preferred embodiment, QDs are coated with a PEI ligand, e.g.,as described above by combining a QD-toluene mixture with a solutioncomprising the PEI ligand. Carrying on from the example embodimentdetailed above describing synthesis of polyethyleneimine modified with1,2-epoxy-3-phenoxypropane and exchange of this modifiedpolyethyleneimine ligand onto QDs to prepare the QD phosphor material,part B (96 g), the amine part of Loctite™ E-30CL epoxy cure resin, wasstirred in a separate 5 L, 3-neck round bottom flask on the Schlenkline. The solution was degassed to a pressure of less than 100 mtorr andback flushed with nitrogen 3 times. Then the QD-PEI solution (i.e., theintensely colored lower phase that contained the QDs with the PEIligand) was added to the solution of part B of the epoxy resin bycannula with stirring. If the QD-PEI solution were too thick to transferthen some toluene (up to 500 mL) could be added to facilitate transferby cannula. Upon completion of the transfer, the solution was mixed for1 hour before the solvent was removed by vacuum transfer to a pressureof less than 200 mtorr with stirring. The product, a thick oil, wastransferred and stored in the glove box. When ready to form the QD film,the product is optionally mixed with additional part B of the epoxyresin to achieve a desired color point, then mixed with part A (theepoxide part of the epoxy resin), whereby the epoxide is cross-linked byamines of any excess ligand material and/or by the amines of part B ofthe resin. Due to the immiscibility of the PEI in the epoxy, PEI-coatedQDs are located in spatial domains throughout the epoxy matrix material.Typically, the PEI-QD domains are relatively small (e.g., on the orderof 100 nm in diameter) and uniformly distributed throughout the epoxymatrix. The QD phosphor material is formed from this QD-PEI-epoxymixture, which is wet-coated onto a substrate and cured to form the QDfilm. The mixture can be coated on a barrier layer or the LGP andthermally or UV cured. Thermal curing is preferred. The curing can beperformed in phases. For example, the QD phosphor material can be formedin layers, wherein each layer is cured individually. Preferably, the QDfilm is deposited on a bottom barrier film and partially cured to thebottom barrier film, then a top barrier film is deposited on the QDmaterial, and the QD material curing is then continued.

In another preferred method of preparing the QD phosphor material, asshown in FIG. 11B, a first polymeric material is synthesized 1102, and aplurality of QDs are dispersed in a first polymeric material (e.g., APSor polyethyleneimine) to coat the QDs with the first polymeric material(e.g., APS or polyethyleneimine ligands) and form a mixture of the QDsand the first polymeric material 1104. Upon solvent evaporation, themixture is cured, and a particulate is generated from the cured mixture1106. Suitably, a cross-linker is added to the mixture prior to thecuring. The particulate can be generated by grinding or ball milling thecured mixture to form a fine or coarse powder of the QD-APS orQD-polyethyleneimine material. Suitably, the QD-APS orQD-polyethyleneimine particles are about 1 μm in diameter. At thispoint, the particulate is preferably dispersed in a second polymericmaterial (e.g., epoxy) to generate the composite QD phosphor material,which can be formed into a film and cured 1108, 1110. Alternatively, theparticles can be coated with an oxide such as an aluminum oxide, asilicon oxide, or a titanium oxide (e.g., SiO₂, Si₂O₃, TiO₂, or Al₂O₃),thereby forming an outer oxide layer on the particles. The oxide layercan be formed using atomic layer deposition (ALD) or other techniquesknown in the art. The oxide-coated powder particles can be applieddirectly to the lighting device (e.g., disposed upon or embedded withinthe LGP), or disposed in a matrix material, such as epoxy, and formedinto the QD film. In certain embodiments, the oxide-coated powderparticles can be used in a lighting device without additional barriermaterials for sealing the QD phosphor material (e.g., without barrierlayers).

In some embodiments, the above-mentioned APS-epoxy ligand-matrix mixtureor PET-epoxy ligand-matrix mixture can be employed using any substitutefor the epoxy matrix material, although epoxy is preferred due to itsadhesive properties, density close to APS and PEI, commercialavailability, and low cost. Suitable epoxy substitutes includepolystyrene, norborene, acrylates, hydrosilated APS, or any solidplastic.

In some embodiments, the matrix is formed from the ligand materialcoating the QDs. A cross-linker can be provided to react with moietieson the ligand. Similarly, an initiator (e.g., a radical or cationicinitiator) can be provided, in embodiments in which no other precursorsof the second matrix material are provided, the matrix optionallyconsists essentially of the first material polymeric ligand and/or across-linked or further polymerized form thereof, as well as anyresidual solvent, cross-linker, initiator, and the like. In oneembodiment, the QDs are coated with AMS ligands, and apoly(acrylonitrile ethylene styrene) (AES) matrix is provided bycross-linking the AMS ligands using a cross-linking agent.

The QD phosphor material and QD film of the present invention can be anydesirable size, shape, configuration and thickness. The QDs can beembedded in the matrix at any loading ratio that is appropriate for thedesired function, depending on the desired color and/or brightnessoutput of the BLU, as explained in more detail below. The thickness andwidth of the QD phosphor material can be controlled by any method knownin the art, such as wet coating, painting, spin coating, screenprinting. In certain QD film embodiments, the QD phosphor material canhave a thickness of 500 μm or less, preferably 250 μm or less, morepreferably 200 μm or less, more preferably 50-150 μm, most preferably50-100 μm. The QD film can have a thickness of 100 μm, about 100 μm, 50μm, or about 50 μm. The QD phosphor material can be deposited as onelayer or as separate layers, and the separate layers may comprisevarying properties, as explained in more detail below. The width andheight of the QD phosphor material can be any desired dimensions,depending on the size of the viewing panel of the display device. Forexample, the QD phosphor may have a relatively small surface area insmall display device embodiments such as watches and phones, or the QDphosphor may have a large surface area for large display deviceembodiments such as TVs and computer monitors. Methods for forming theQD BLUs of the present invention can include forming a large QD film andcutting the QD film into smaller QD films to form individual lightingdevices, as discussed in more detail below.

In certain embodiments of the present invention, the matrix material inwhich the QD phosphors are embedded can be comprised of other layers ofthe BLU, such as one or more of the LGP, barrier layers. BEFs, diffuserlayers, or other suitable layers of the BLU, such that the QDs areembedded therein, whereby at least a portion of the primary lighttransmitted therethrough is absorbed by the QDs and down-converted tosecondary light emitted by the QDs. In embodiments where the QDphosphors are embedded within an existing layer of the device, andembodiments where the QD phosphors are not surrounded by a matrixmaterial, the QDs preferably comprise an outer oxide coating, such as asilicon oxide, a titanium oxide, or an aluminum oxide (e.g., SiO₂,Si₂O₃, TiO₂, or Al₂O₃). The oxide-coated QDs can be directly depositedonto and/or directly dispersed within, one or more layers of thelighting device.

As will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art, thecomponents and materials described herein can be chosen to have aspecific index of refraction, depending on the particular applicationand the desired effect. The terms “refractive index,” “index ofrefraction,” or “refractive indices.” as used herein, indicates thedegree to which the material bends light. As will be understood bypersons of ordinary skill in the art, the refractive index of each ofthe materials described herein can be determined by determining theratio of the speed of light in a vacuum divided by the speed of light inthe material. Each of the components and materials of the lightingdevice of the present invention can be chosen to have a desiredrefractive index or indices, including the matrix materials, ligandmaterials, barrier layers, and/or other materials.

In one preferred class of embodiments, the one or more matrix materialshas a low index of refraction and can be index-matched to the one ormore barrier layers, LGP, BEFs, and/or other layers of the device.

In another embodiment, at least one matrix material 1330 of the QDphosphor material 1304 has a lower refractive index than adjacent layersin the lighting device, whereby the angle of primary light entering theQD phosphor material is increased from 01 to O₂ upon entering the QDphosphor material. As shown in FIG. 13A, in one example embodiment,primary light 1314 a is refracted in the QD phosphor material layer1304, which has a lower index of refraction than that of the LGP. Theangle of light entering the QD phosphor material 1304 increases, therebyincreasing the path length of primary light in the QD phosphor material.Consequently, this increases the probability that the primary light 1314b will be absorbed by quantum dots in the QD phosphor material. With alonger path length of primary light and an increased chance of secondaryemission by the QDs, a lower QD concentration is required to achieve anygiven brightness of secondary light. As will be appreciated by those ofordinary skill in the art, the one or more barrier layers 1320, 1322 canbe index-matched to another material, such as the LGP 1306 or the matrixmaterial 1330, or can have a distinct index of refraction.

In yet another embodiment, the QD phosphor material includes at leastone matrix and/or ligand material having a different refractive indexthan another matrix and/or ligand material in the QD phosphor layer. Forexample, the QD film can include a first matrix material having arelatively low index of refraction and a second material having a higherindex of refraction. The second material can include one or mom matrixor ligand materials. In one example embodiment, as shown in FIG. 13B,the QD film 1302 includes at least a first material 1330 a having afirst index of refraction, n1, and at least a second material 1330 bhaving a second index of refraction, n2, wherein n2 is different thann1, whereby the index-mismatch causes light refraction—particularlyprimary light refraction—in the QD film. In one embodiment, as shown inFIG. 13B, n2 is lower than n1, whereby the second material 1330 brefracts primary light 1314 in the QD film. In one embodiment, the QDsare embedded in the second material 1330 b.

As will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art, the matrixmaterials can be chosen to properly balance the necessary transparencyor other properties with the advantageous effects of tailoring therefractive index of the matrix materials.

Barriers

In preferred embodiments, the QD film comprises one or more barrierlayers disposed on either one or both sides of the QD phosphor materiallayer. Suitable barrier layers protect the QDs and the QD phosphormaterial from environmental conditions such as high temperatures,oxygen, and moisture. Suitable barrier materials include non-yellowing,transparent optical materials which are hydrophobic, chemically andmechanically compatible with the QD phosphor material, exhibit photo-and chemical-stability, and can withstand high temperatures. Preferably,the one or more barrier layers are index-matched to the QD phosphormaterial. In preferred embodiments, the matrix material of the QDphosphor material and the one or more adjacent barrier layers areindex-matched to have similar refractive indices, such that most of thelight transmitting through the barrier layer toward the QD phosphormaterial is transmitted from the barrier layer into the phosphormaterial. This index-matching reduces optical losses at the interfacebetween the barrier and matrix materials.

The barrier layers are suitably solid materials, and can be a curedliquid, gel, or polymer. The barrier layers can comprise flexible ornon-flexible materials, depending on the particular application. Barrierlayers are preferably planar layers, and can include any suitable shapeand surface area configuration, depending on the particular lightingapplication. In preferred embodiments, the one or more barrier layerswill be compatible with laminate film processing techniques, whereby theQD phosphor material is disposed on at least a first barrier film, andat least a second barrier film is disposed on the QD phosphor materialon a side opposite the QD phosphor material to form the QD filmaccording to one embodiment of the present invention. Suitable barriermaterials include any suitable barrier materials known in the art. Forexample, suitable barrier materials include glasses, polymers, andoxides. Suitable barrier layer materials include, but are not limitedto, polymers such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET); oxides such assilicon oxide, titanium oxide, or aluminum oxide (e.g., SiO₂, Si₂O₃,TiO₂, or Al₂O₃); and suitable combinations thereof. Preferably, eachbarrier layer of the QD film comprises at least 2 layers comprisingdifferent materials or compositions, such that the multi-layered barriereliminates or reduces pinhole defect alignment in the barrier layer,providing an effective barrier to oxygen and moisture penetration intothe QD phosphor material. The QD film can include any suitable materialor combination of materials and any suitable number of barrier layers oneither or both sides of the QD phosphor material. The materials,thickness, and number of barrier layers will depend on the particularapplication, and will suitably be chosen to maximize barrier protectionand brightness of the QD phosphor while minimizing thickness of the QDfilm. In preferred embodiments, each barrier layer comprises a laminatefilm, preferably a dual laminate film, wherein the thickness of eachbarrier layer is sufficiently thick to eliminate wrinkling inroll-to-roll or laminate manufacturing processes. The number orthickness of the barriers may further depend on legal toxicityguidelines in embodiments where the QDs or other QD phosphor materialscomprise heavy metals or other toxic materials, which guidelines mayrequire more or thicker barrier layers. Additional considerations forthe barriers include coat, availability, and mechanical strength.

In preferred embodiments, the QD film comprises two or more barrierlayers adjacent each side of the QD phosphor material, preferably two orthree layers on each side, most preferably two barrier layers on eachside of the QD phosphor material. Preferably, each barrier layercomprises a thin polymer film having a thin oxide coating on at leastone side of the polymer film. Preferably, the barrier layers comprise athin PET film coated with a thin layer of silicon oxide (e.g., SiO₂ orSi₂O₃) on one side. For example, preferred barrier materials includeCeramis™ CPT-002 and CPT-005, available from Alcan™. In anotherpreferred embodiment, each barrier layer comprises a thin glass sheet,e.g., glass sheets having a thickness of about 100 μm, 100 μm or less,50 μm or less preferably 50 μm or about 50 μm.

As shown in the example embodiment of FIG. 14A, the QD BLU 1400 includesa primary light source 1410, LGP 1406 having optional light extractionfeatures 1450, reflective film 1408 disposed beneath the LGP, BEFs 1401,and QD film 1402 disposed between the LGP and BEFs. As shown in FIG.14B, the QD film 1402 includes a top barrier 1420 and a bottom barrier1422. Each of the barriers 1420 and 1422 includes a first sublayer 1420a/1422 a adjacent the QD phosphor material 1404, and at least a secondsublayer 1420 b/1422 b on the first layer 1420 a/1422 a. In preferredembodiments, the materials and number of sublayers are chosen tominimize pinhole alignment between the adjacent sublayers. In preferredembodiments, each of the top barrier 1420 and bottom barrier 1422comprises a first sublayer 1420 a/1422 a comprising silicon oxide, and asecond sublayer 1420 b/1422 b comprising PET. Preferably, the firstsublayer 1420 a/1422 a comprising silicon oxide is disposed directlyadjacent the QD phosphor material 1404, and the second sublayer 1420b/1422 b comprising PET is disposed over the first sublayer 1420 a/1422a such that the first sublayer 1420 a/1422 a is disposed between the QDphosphor material 1404 and the second sublayer 1420 b/11422 b. In oneexample embodiment, the QD phosphor material has a thickness of about 50μm, each of the first sublayers comprising silicon oxide has a thicknessof about 8 μm, and each of the second sublayers comprising PET has athickness of about 12 μm.

In a preferred embodiment, as shown in FIG. 14C, the top and bottombarriers each comprise a dual barrier (i.e., 2 barrier layers). The topbarrier 1420 comprises a first barrier layer and a second barrier layer,wherein the first barrier layer comprises a first sublayer 1420 a and asecond sublayer 1420 b, and the second barrier layer comprises a firstsublayer 1420 c and a second sublayer 1420 d. The bottom barrier 1422comprises a first barrier layer and a second barrier layer, wherein thefirst barrier layer comprises a first sublayer 1422 a and a secondsublayer 1422 b, and the second barrier layer comprises a first sublayer1422 c and a second sublayer 1422 d. Preferably, the first sublayers1420 a, 1420 c, 1422 a, and 1422 c comprise silicon oxide and the secondsublayers 1420 b. 1420 d, 1422 b, and 1422 d comprise PET. In oneexample embodiment, the QD phosphor material has a thickness of about100 μm, each of the first sublayers comprising silicon dioxide has athickness of about 8 μm, and each of the second sublayers comprising PEThas a thickness of about 12 μm.

Any of the one or more barrier layers can comprise a layer having aconsistent thickness and structure across the viewing plane, as shown inFIG. 15A. Any of the barrier layers may also comprise features 1550 onthe top, bottom, or both the top and bottom surfaces of the barrierlayer, as shown in FIGS. 15B, 15C, and 15D, respectively. As will beunderstood by persons of ordinary skill in the art, any suitablecombination of such barrier layers with or without features 1550 can beemployed. As shown in the various example embodiments shown in FIGS.15B-15I, the features 1550 of the barrier layer can comprise anysuitable texture or pattern, including prisms, pitches, lenses, bumps,wavy features, scratches, lenses, domes, or a randomly micro-texturedsurface. Suitably, the features can be light scattering or diffuserfeatures—e.g., to scatter light in the QD film or to diffuse lighttransmitting from the top of the QD film to optically balanceimperfections in the LGP, QD film, or other layer of the BLU. Suitably,the features can comprise light extraction or brightness-enhancingfeatures to enhance light extraction and the brightness of light emittedby the BLU and/or promote recycling of primary light back into the QDphosphor material to enhance secondary light emission. Suitably, thefeatures 1550 prevent intimate physical coupling between the QD film andadjacent layers of the BLU, particularly the LGP, thus preventingundesirable cladding effects. Suitably, the features 1550 can have asize of about 0.5-1 μm in height, and each of the features can beseparated by a distance of about 0.5-1 μm. Suitably, the featurescomprise the same material as the barrier layer on which they areformed, and the features can be formed directly in or on the barrierlayer. Features 1550 can be formed using any methods known in the art,including stamping, laser etching, chemical etching, injection molding,and extrusion.

In one example embodiment shown in FIG. 16A, the bottom surface of thebottom barrier layer 1622 comprises anti-coupling or anti-claddingfeatures 1650 to prevent excess optical coupling (e.g., cladding)between the LGP and the QD film. These anti-coupling or anti-claddingfeatures 1650 prevent excess physical contact between the LGP 1606 andthe QD film 1602, thereby promoting brightness uniformity over thedisplay surface. Suitably, the features 1650 prevent excessive opticalcoupling between the QD film and adjacent layers of the BLU—particularlythe LGP. Suitably, the features 1650 can have a size of about 0.5-1 μmin height and width, and each of the features can be separated by adistance of about 0.5-1 μm.

In certain embodiments of the invention, the top surface of the barrierplate 1620 comprises structural features 1650 which reduce totalinternal reflection at the interface between the top plate 1620 and themedium above the top plate (e.g., air), into which the light emits fromthe device. In an exemplary embodiment, the top surface of the topbarrier plate 1620 is micro-textured at the air/glass interface of thebarrier plate 1620 and the adjacent medium above the top plate 1620. Themicro-textured surface reduces total internal reflection and increasesthe light extraction from the top plate. In certain embodiments,structural features 1650 on the top surface of the top plate increaselight extraction by about 10% or more. The geometry of the structuralfeatures 1650 can be chosen or modified based on the wavelength(s) oflight emitted from the phosphor material of the phosphor package, therefractive indices of the QD film and adjacent media, or othercharacteristics, as will be understood by ordinarily skilled artisans.

In another example embodiment, shown in FIG. 16B, the top surface of thetop barrier layer 1620 comprises brightness-enhancing features 1650,such as prisms or pitches, which reflect a portion of the primary lightback toward the QD film, thereby providing “recycling” of primary lightback into the QD film. As referred to herein, “brightness enhancementfilms” (BEFs) and “brightness enhancement features” are films orfeatures which reflect a portion of light back toward the direction fromwhich the light was transmitted. Light traveling toward the BEF orbrightness enhancement feature will be transmitted through the film orfeature, depending on the angle at which the light is incident upon thefilm or features. For example, as shown in FIGS. 16C-16D, the brightnessenhancement features 1650 of BEFs 1601 comprise prisms or prism groovesformed in parallel on the top surface of the films 1601. Light travelingupward from the LGP 1606 will transmit through the BEFs if the light isnormal, or perpendicular to the planar films 1601. However, such lightwill be reflected downward toward the LGP if the light has a higherangle. The BEFs and brightness enhancement features can be chosen tohave multiple reflection angles for light of different angles, and suchfeatures and angles can be chosen to achieve a desired brightness orlight “recycling.” For example, a first polarizer film (or BEF) canreflect light having an angle of about 15-25 degrees from the planeperpendicular to the film (i.e., 65-75 degrees from the normal), and asecond film can reflect light having an angle of about 25-35 degreesfrom the perpendicular plane. The BEFs can be disposed with theenhancement features 1650 disposed in opposite directions, as shown inthe films 1620 a, 1620 b of FIG. 16D. Additional BEFs can also beincluded. The use of multiple-angle and multiple-direction reflectionfeatures results in “solid-angle recycling,” which recycles lightreaching the BEFs from various directions. In preferred embodiments ofthe present invention, the angles or pitches of the one or more BEFswill be chosen to reflect a significant portion of primary light towardthe QD film, such that the QD quantity can be greatly reduced to achievea desired secondary light emission from the QDs.

The BEFs and brightness enhancing features can include reflective and/orrefractive films, reflective polarizer films, prism films, groove films,grooved prism films, prisms, pitches, grooves, or any suitable BEFs orbrightness enhancement features known in the art. For example, the BEFscan include conventional BEFs such Vikuiti™ BEFs available from 3M™. Incertain embodiments, one or more barrier layers can have brightnessenhancement features formed thereon or therein, whereby the one or morebarrier layers functions as both a barrier and a BEF. The barrier layer1620 can be the bottom BEF of a BEE optical film stack. In anotherexample embodiment, shown in FIGS. 16C and 16D, the top barriercomprises at least two layers, each layer comprisingbrightness-enhancing features on the top surface of the layer. The topbarrier 1620 comprises a first layer 1620 a comprising a first BEFhaving brightness-enhancing features 1650 on the top surface, and asecond layer 1620 b comprising a second BEF having brightness-enhancingfeatures 1650 on the top surface, wherein the top barrier functions asboth a barrier 1620 and a REF stack 1601 comprising the first BEEbarrier layer 1620 a and the second BEF barrier layer 1620 b. Inpreferred embodiments, the QD BLU comprises at least one BEF, morepreferably at least two BEFs. Suitably, the BLU can comprise at leastthree BEFs. In preferred embodiments, at least one BEF comprises areflective polarizer BEF (i.e., a DBEF), e.g., for recycling light whichwould otherwise be absorbed by the bottom polarizer film of the liquidcrystal matrix module. The brightness-enhancing features and BEFs caninclude reflectors and/or refractors, polarizers, reflective polarizers,light extraction features, light recycling features, or anybrightness-enhancing features known in the art. The BEFs andbrightness-enhancing features 1650 can include conventional BEFs. Forexample, the BEFs can include a first layer having pitches or prismshaving a first pitch angle, and at least a second layer having pitchesor prisms having a second pitch angle. In still further embodiments, theBLU can include a third BEF layer having pitches or prisms having athird pitch angle. Suitable BEFs include conventional BEFs, includingVikuiti™ BEFs available from 3M™.

In certain embodiments, one or more barrier layers can be formed from anexisting layer or material rather than an additional barrier material.For example, in exemplary embodiments, the matrix material surroundingthe QDs can itself function as a barrier material for the QDs. Incertain embodiments, the top barrier layer of the QD film can comprise adiffuser layer or a BEF film of the BLU. In still further embodiments,the LGP can act as a bottom barrier layer for the QD phosphor material;however, the LGP and the QD film are preferably not in intimate contactwith one another. As will be understood by those of ordinary skill inthe art, the QD phosphor barrier materials or barrier layers can includeany suitable combination of one or more components, as mentioned herein.

Each barrier layer of the QD film of the present invention can have anysuitable thickness, which will depend on the particular requirements andcharacteristics of the lighting device and application, as well as theindividual film components such as the barrier layers and the QDphosphor material, as will be understood by persons of ordinary skill inthe art. In certain embodiments, each barrier layer can have a thicknessof 50 μm or less, 40 μm or less, 30 μm or less, preferably 25 μm or lessor 20 μm or less, most preferably 15 μm or less. In certain embodiments,the barrier layer comprises an oxide coating, which can comprisematerials such as silicon oxide, titanium oxide, and aluminum oxide(e.g., SiO₂, Si₂O₃, TiO₂, or Al₂O₃). The oxide coating can have athickness of about 1.0 μm or less, 5 μm or less, 1 μm or less, or 100 nmor less. In certain embodiments, the barrier comprises a thin oxidecoating with a thickness of about 100 nm or less, and can have athickness of 10 nm or less, 5 nm or less, or 3 nm or less. The topand/or bottom barrier can consist of the thin oxide coating, or maycomprise the thin oxide coating and one or more additional materiallayers.

Barrier Seal

In a preferred embodiment, as shown in FIGS. 17A and 17B, the QD film1702 comprises top and bottom barriers 1720, 1722, which can include anyof the barrier embodiments described herein, and an inactive region 1705which comprises a spatially defined region around the perimeter of theQD phosphor material which is exposed to environmental conditions suchas oxygen. Preferably, the QD phosphor material provides a sufficientbarrier to prevent oxygen or moisture from penetrating beyond thepredetermined or predefined inactive region 1705 and into the activeregion 1709 of the QD phosphor material. In a preferred embodiment, theQD phosphor material comprises APS-coated or PEI-coated QDs disposed inan epoxy matrix material, and the inactive region has a width of about 1millimeter at the outermost edge or perimeter of the QD film, and aheight equal to the thickness of the QD phosphor material at saidperimeter of the QD film. The dimensions of the spatial region caninclude any suitable dimensions and will depend on the particular deviceembodiment, including the particular QD phosphor materials, the numberand type of barrier layers, etc. The width of the inactive region can bedetermined using appropriate testing procedures, and suitably comprises2 mm or less or 1.5 mm or less, and is preferably 1 mm or less, 1 mm, orabout 1 mm.

In addition to or as an alternative to the one or more barrier layers,the QD film can be edge sealed and/or hermetically sealed to protect theQD phosphor material from environmental conditions. In one exampleembodiment, the QD film comprises the QD phosphor material 1804 and ahermetic packaging or coating layer 1821 which completely coats theentire outer surface of the QD phosphor material, as shown in FIG. 18A.As will be appreciated by persons of ordinary skill in the art, any ofthe embodiments of the present invention, including those specificallydescribed herein, can include an external hermetic coating layer on thesurface of the QD phosphor material or the QD film. Suitably, thehermetic coating layer comprises an oxide, such as silicon oxide,titanium oxide, or aluminum oxide (e.g., SiO₂, Si₂O₃, TiO₂, or Al₂O₃);glass, polymer, epoxy, or any of the matrix materials described herein.The hermetic seal can be formed by any suitable methods known in theart, including spray coating, painting, wet coating, chemical vapordeposition, or atomic layer deposition.

In a preferred embodiment, the top and bottom barriers are mechanicallysealed. As shown in the preferred embodiments of FIGS. 188 and 18C, thetop and/or bottom layers are pinched together to seal the QD film.Suitably, the edges of the barrier layers 1820 and 1822 are pinchedbefore the QD phosphor material is fully cured. Suitably, the edges arepinched immediately following deposition of the QD film and barrierlayers, so as to minimize exposure of the QD phosphor material to oxygenand moisture in the environment. The barrier edges can be sealed bypinching, stamping, melting, rolling, pressing, or the like. In oneembodiment of forming the QD film, one or more barrier edges are sealedduring the same process step used to cut the QD film down to theappropriate size. As shown in FIGS. 19A and 20A, the same or similarmechanical edge-seal can be employed in embodiments where the QD filmcomprises a bottom barrier 1922 comprising a LGP 1906 (as in FIG. 19A,showing the QD phosphor material formed directly on the combinationbottom barrier layer and LGP 1906, 1922 and the top barrier layer 1920),and where the QD film 2002 is formed or deposited on the LGP 2006 priorto mechanically sealing the QD film (as in FIG. 20A, showing the QD filmcomprising a top barrier 2020, a bottom barrier 2022, and a QD phosphormaterial 2004).

In still other embodiments, as shown in FIGS. 198 and 208, the QD filmcomprises an edge seal 1927, 2027, said edge seal comprising a sealmaterial disposed adjacent to the QD phosphor material 1904, 2004 alongthe perimeter of the QD phosphor material. Suitably, the edge sealcomprises a suitable optical adhesive material, such as epoxy. The edgeseal can comprise one or more matrix material of the QD phosphormaterial, including matrix materials described herein. In still otherembodiments, as shown in FIGS. 19C and 20C, a seal material 1928, 2028is formed over the QD phosphor material 1904, 2004, suitably coveringthe entire top surface and edges of the QD phosphor material. The sealmaterial 1928, 2028 suitably comprises a transparent, non-yellowingoptical material, including epoxy or any suitable matrix materialsdescribed herein. The seal material can comprise an oxide coating,including materials such as silicon oxide, titanium oxide, or aluminumoxide (e.g., SiO₂, Si₂O₃, TiO₂, or Al₂O₃). Suitably, the seal materialis both chemically and mechanically compatible with the QD phosphormaterial. Suitably, the seal material is a durable, flexible materialwith high mechanical strength. The seal material can be deposited overthe QD phosphor material or over one or more barrier materials.Additionally, one or more barrier materials can be disposed over theseal material. Suitably, the seal material is a curable material whichcan be cured together with the QD phosphor material—e.g., thermallycured or UV cured. In another class of embodiments, as shown in FIGS.19D and 20D, the QD phosphor material 1904, 2004 itself provides abarrier to environmental conditions. In such embodiments, a top and/orbottom barrier can be excluded from the QD film. In such embodiments,the QDs can be optionally coated with an oxide coating or layer toprovide further protection from environmental conditions, as describedin more detail above.

As will be understood by persons having ordinary skill in the art, thebarriers and seals described herein can be used in any suitablecombination, and the barriers and seals can be chosen based on theparticular application and desired characteristics of the lightingdevice.

Light Guide

The QD film remote phosphor package of the present invention isoptically connected to the primary light source, such that the remotephosphor package is in optical communication with the primary lightsource. In preferred embodiments, the primary light source and the QDfilm remote phosphor package are each optically coupled to at least oneplanar waveguide, herein referred to as a light guide panel (LGP),whereby each of the primary and secondary light sources is in opticalcommunication with one another via the LGP, e.g., as shown in FIGS. 6,7, and 13. The QD film is suitably disposed over or adjacent a LGP, andthe LGP is suitably disposed over or adjacent the one or more primarylight emitting sources, such as LEDs, which provide primary light toinitiate secondary light emission from the phosphor material of thephosphor package. The LGP provides a light transfer medium for lightemitted from the primary source to transmit through the LGP to theremote phosphor package, thereby allowing for the primary light toexcite the QDs and cause secondary light emission. In anotherembodiment, the LGP is disposed between the remote phosphor package andthe viewing plane of a lighting display, wherein light exiting theremote phosphor package transmits through the LGP to the entire viewingplane of the display surface, whereby the light is seen by a viewer ofthe display. The LGP can include any suitable non-yellowing opticalmaterial which is transparent to primary and secondary light, and caninclude any suitable LGP known to those of ordinary skill in the art.For example, the LGP can comprise any conventional LGP. Suitable LGPmaterials comprise polycarbonate (PC), poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA),methyl methacrylate, styrene, acrylic polymer resin, glass, or anysuitable LGP materials known in the art. Suitable manufacturing methodsfor the LGP include injection molding, extrusion, or other suitableembodiments known in the art. In preferred embodiments, the LGP providesuniform primary light emission from the top surface of the LGP, suchthat primary light entering the QD film is of uniform color andbrightness. The LGP can include any thickness or shape known in the art.For example, the LGP thickness can be uniform over the entire LGPsurface, as shown in FIGS. 21A and 22A. Alternatively, the LGP can havea wedge-like shape, as shown in FIG. 22C.

In certain embodiments, the QD film remote phosphor package can be aseparate element from the LGP, while in other embodiments the remotephosphor package can be wholly or partially integrated with the LGP. Inone exemplary embodiment, the phosphor material and the LGP are disposedin a single layer, wherein the phosphor material is embedded in the LGP.In another exemplary embodiment, the QD film is disposed over the LGP,wherein the LGP is a bottom barrier material layer of the QD film. Inpreferred embodiments, the QD film and the LGP are separate and distinctelements, most preferably wherein excess physical coupling is minimizedor eliminated between the LGP and the QD film.

The LGP 2106, 2206, 2306 may comprise features 2150, 2250, 2350 on thetop, bottom, or both the top and bottom surfaces of the LGP, as shown inFIGS. 21D, 21E, 22D-22K, 23C, and 23D. The LGP features can be locatedin a separate layer adjacent the LGP, as shown in FIG. 22K. As shown inthe various example embodiments of FIGS. 21-23, the LGP features 2150,2250, 2350 can comprise any suitable texture or pattern, includingprisms, pitches, lenses, bumps, wavy features, scratches, any of thefeatures described above in relation to the barrier layers, or anysuitable features known in the art. Suitably, the features can includelight scattering or diffuser features—e.g., to scatter light in the LGPor QD film, or to diffuse light transmitting from the top of the LGP tooptically balance imperfections in the LGP or the reflector film 2108disposed below the LGP. Suitably, the features can comprise reflectingfeatures—e.g., at the bottom of the LGP to reflect light away from thebottom surface of the LGP and toward the top surface of the LGP.Suitably, the features can comprise brightness-enhancing features toenhance the brightness of light emitted by the BLU and/or promoterecycling of primary light back into the QD phosphor material to enhancesecondary light emission. Suitably, the LGP features can includeanti-coupling feature—e.g., to reduce optical coupling or preventcladding between the LGP and the QD film or other layers adjacent theLGP. Suitably, the LGP features can have a size of about 0.5-1 μm inheight, and each of the features can be separated by a distance of about0.5-1 μm. The spacers 2152 and anti-coupling features 2150 can includeany suitable shape, size, and material. Suitably, the features comprisethe same material as the LGP, and the features can be formed directly inor on the LGP. The LGP features can be formed using any methods known inthe art, including stamping, laser etching, chemical etching, injectionmolding, and extrusion. As will be understood by persons of ordinaryskill in the art, any suitable combination of such LGP features can beemployed.

In certain embodiments, the LGP can act as a bottom barrier layer forthe QD phosphor material, as shown in FIG. 22A, and suitable LGP-barrierlayers will include any optically transparent, non-yellowing, oxygen-and moisture-impermeable material which is a sufficient temperaturebarrier for the QDs. However, the LGP and QD film are preferably not inintimate contact with one another in embodiments where the LGP and QDfilm are distinct layers. In preferred embodiments, the QD film and theLGP are not in intimate contact, such that an optical cladding effectbetween the QD film and the LGP is eliminated or minimized, wherebybrightness uniformity is maintained over the display surface. In oneexample embodiment shown in FIG. 21B, a gap 2151, such as an air gap,exists between the LGP 2106 and the QD film 2102. In another embodiment,as shown in FIG. 21C, spacers 2152 provide a separation distance betweenthe QD film and the LGP. Suitably, the LGP and QD) film are separated oroffset by a distance of about 0.5-1 μm. In another embodiment, the LGPcomprises anti-coupling or anti-cladding features 2150 to prevent excessor intimate physical coupling between the LGP and the QD film. Suitably,the features 2150, 2250, 2350 or spacers 2152 prevent excess physicalcoupling between the LGP and adjacent layers of the BLU, particularlythe QD film. Suitably, the anti-cladding or anti-coupling LGP featurescan have a size of about 0.5-1 μm in height and width, and each of thefeatures can be separated by a distance of about 0.5-1 μm.

In another example embodiment, as shown in FIGS. 21D, 22D-22I, 23C, and23D, the LGP comprises brightness-enhancing features 2150, 2250, 2350,such as prisms, lenses, domes, or pitches; on the top and/or bottomsurface of the LGP. Suitably, the brightness-enhancing featurescomprises brightness-enhancing features on the top surface of the LGP.The brightness-enhancing LGP features can include conventionalbrightness-enhancing features known in the art, including thosedescribed herein. For example, the brightness-enhancing features caninclude pitches or prisms having a first pitch angle, additional pitchesor prisms having a second pitch angle, and so on.

In another example embodiment, the LGP comprises scattering or diffuserfeatures to scatter light in the LGP or the QD film, or to scatter lighttransmitting from the top of the LGP to optically balance imperfectionsin the LGP or the reflector film. In a preferred embodiment, the LGPcomprises scattering features on the top, bottom, or top and bottomsurfaces of the LGP, whereby the features promote scattering in the QDfilm to increase the optical path length of primary light in the QDphosphor material of the QD film.

In still other embodiments, the LGP comprises reflecting features,suitably at the bottom surface of the LGP, whereby the reflectingfeatures reflect light away from the bottom surface of the LGP andtoward the top surface of the LGP.

In certain embodiments, as shown in FIGS. 22B, 23A-23H, and 26A-H, theLGP comprises at least one population of secondary light-emitting QDs2313, 2514 embedded in the LGP, such that the LGP and the QD film areintegrated into the same layer. The QDs 2313 can be dispersed uniformlythroughout the LGP 2306, as shown in FIG. 23A. Alternatively, the QDscan be disposed primarily or solely in a particular portion, region, orlayer of the LGP, as shown in FIGS. 23B-23H. The QDs can be disposed ina top portion, region, or layer of the LGP, as shown in FIGS. 23B-23Dand 23H, and the QDs can be disposed primarily in or near the LGPfeatures 2350, as shown in FIGS. 23C and 23D. As shown in FIG. 23E, theQDs can be disposed within a middle layer or region 2306 of the LGP. Asshown in FIG. 23F, the QDs can be disposed within an end portion orregion 2306 a of the LGP—e.g., at an end portion or region locatedopposite the primary light sources, or at an end portion or regionlocated closest to the primary light sources. As shown in FIGS. 230 and23H, the QDs can have a gradient density throughout the LGP—e.g., the QDconcentration can increase toward the top, bottom, or one or more edgesof the LGP.

In still other embodiments, the LGP can comprise scattering features,such as scattering beads 2440, 2540, embedded in the LGP, as shown inFIGS. 24 and 25. As shown in FIGS. 24A-H, the scattering beads 2440 canbe dispersed uniformly throughout the LGP 2406, disposed primarily orsolely in a particular portion, region, or layer of the LGP—such as atop, bottom, edge, perimeter, or middle portion, layer, or region of theLIP; or disposed such that the scattering beads have a gradient densitythroughout the LGP.

In another class of embodiments, the LGP comprises both secondarylight-emitting QDs and scattering features, such as scattering beads.The LGP can comprise any suitable arrangement of QDs and scatteringbeads dispersed therein. Example embodiments are shown in FIGS. 25A-H.However, as will be appreciated by persons of ordinary skill in the art,the present invention encompasses any suitable arrangement, includingthose disclosed herein and any combination thereof: The arrangement ofQDs and/or scattering features in the LGP should be chosen depending onthe particular lighting method and device requirements, and thesearrangements are not limited to the specific example embodiments shownor discussed herein.

Reflective Film

In preferred embodiments, the lighting device of the present inventioncomprises reflective features to reflect primary light toward the QDphosphor material. Preferably, the QD film BLU of the present inventioncomprises a reflective film disposed at the bottom of the LGP or beneaththe LGP, such that the LGP waveguide 606 is disposed between the QD film602 and the reflective film 608, as shown in the example embodiment ofFIGS. 6A and 6B and the conventional BLU of FIG. 5 showing reflectorfilm 508. The reflective film can comprise any suitable material, suchas a reflective mirror, a film of reflector particles, a reflectivemetal film, or any suitable conventional reflectors. However, thereflective film 608 is preferably a white film. In certain embodiments,the reflector film can comprise additional functionality or features,such as scattering, diffuser, or brightness-enhancing features,including those features discussed above with respect to the LGP andbarrier layers and FIGS. 21-26.

In another embodiment, as shown in FIG. 6C, the QD phosphor materiallayer 604 can be disposed directly above the reflective film 608. Thereflective film 608 can form the bottom barrier layer 622 of the QDfilm, whereby the film 608, 622 forms a combination barrier film andreflective film. As shown in FIG. 6C, the QD film 602 includes a topbarrier layer 620 between the QD phosphor layer 604 and the LGP 606.Optionally, the device can include a diffuser film 605 which is separatefrom the QD phosphor layer 604. For example, as shown FIG. 6C, thediffuser film 605 is disposed above the LGP 606, e.g., between the LGP606 and the BEE layers 601. The bottom reflective barrier film 608, 622can include multiple layers having different properties. In one suchembodiment (not shown), the bottom reflective barrier film can includeone or more plastic or polymer barrier film layers and one or morereflective material layers. For example, the bottom reflective barrierfilm can include at least a first plastic/polymer barrier layer disposeddirectly adjacent to and in direct physical contact with the QD phosphorlayer 604, and a reflective film layer, e.g., a reflective metal layersuch as an aluminum film layer, beneath the plastic barrier layer,whereby the plastic/polymer barrier film is disposed between the QDphosphor layer 604 and the reflective film layer. Optionally, the bottomreflective barrier film can further include at least a secondpolymer/plastic film layer disposed beneath the reflective film layer,whereby the reflective film layer is disposed between the first andsecond polymer/plastic layers in the bottom reflective film stack. Theone or more plastic/polymer layers can prevent scratching of or damageto the reflective film layer and improve adhesion between the reflectivefilm layer and the QD phosphor layer 604 or other layers in the lightingdevice.

Diffuser Film

In certain embodiments of the present invention, the lighting devicecomprises a diffuser film, which is distinct from and supplemental tothe scattering features described herein, such as the diffuser film 504shown in the conventional LCD 500 of FIG. 5. The diffuser film caninclude any diffuser film known in the art, including gain diffuserfilms, and can be disposed above or below the LGP, above or below the QDfilm of the present invention, or above or below the one or more BEFs orother optical films of the BLU. In preferred embodiments, the QD film(or other features of the present invention) eliminates the need for aconventional diffuser film in the BLU, thereby minimizing the thicknessof the lighting device. As discussed in more detail below, the QD filmcan include one or more scattering or diffuser features associatedtherewith, which can serve the purpose of traditional diffusers inaddition to increasing secondary emission of QDs in the QD film.

In other embodiments, the device can include one or more diffuser filmsin addition to or alternative to the QD phosphor film layer. Forexample, the BLU can include one or two diffuser films above the QDfilm.

Brightness Enhancement

In preferred embodiments of the present invention, the BLU comprises oneor more brightness-enhancing features or brightness-enhancing films. Asreferred to herein, “brightness enhancement films” (BEFs) and“brightness enhancement features” are films or features which reflect aportion of light back toward the direction from which the light wastransmitted. Light traveling toward the BEF or brightness enhancementfeature will be transmitted through the film or feature, depending onthe angle at which the light is incident upon the film or features. Forexample, as shown in FIGS. 16C-16D, the brightness enhancement features1650 of BEFs 1601 comprise prisms or prism grooves formed in parallel onthe top surface of the films 1601. Light traveling upward from the LGP1606 will transmit through the BEFs if the light is normal orperpendicular to the planar films 1601. However, such light will bereflected downward toward the LGP if the light has a higher angle. TheBEFs and brightness enhancement features can be chosen to have multiplereflection angles for light of different angles, and such features andangles can be chosen to achieve a desired brightness or light“recycling.” For example, a first polarizer film (or BEF) can reflectlight having an angle of about 15-25 degrees from the planeperpendicular to the film (i.e., 65-75 degrees from, the normal), and asecond film can reflect light having an angle of about 25-35 degreesfrom the perpendicular plane. The BEFs can be disposed with theenhancement features 1650 disposed in opposite directions, as shown inthe films 1620 a, 1620 b of FIG. 16D. Additional BEFs can also beincluded. The use of multiple-angle and multiple-direction reflectionfeatures results in “solid-angle recycling.” which recycles lightreaching the BEFs from various directions. In preferred embodiments ofthe present invention, the angles or pitches of the one or more BEFswill be chosen to reflect a significant portion of primary light towardthe QD film, such that the QD quantity can be greatly reduced to achievea desired secondary light emission from the QDs.

In certain embodiments, one or more barrier layers can have brightnessenhancement features formed thereon or therein, whereby the one or morebarrier layers functions as both a barrier and a BEF. The BLU cancomprise any of the brightness-enhancing features and BEFs describedherein, including those features and films discussed above with respectto the LGP and QD film barrier layers and FIGS. 16 and 21-26. Inpreferred embodiments, the lighting device comprises at least two ormore BEFs 601, at least one LGP 606, and a QD film remote phosphorpackage 602 disposed between the LGP 606 and the BEFs 601, as shown inFIGS. 6A and 6B, or between the bottom reflective film 608 and the BEFs601, as shown in FIG. 6C. In additional embodiments, the LGP and/or oneor more barrier layers comprises a BEF or brightness-enhancingfeatures—e.g., as discussed above with respect to FIGS. 16 and 21-26. Inpreferred embodiments, the QD BLU comprises at least one BEF, morepreferably at least two BEFs. Suitably, the BLU can comprise at leastthree BEFs, wherein at least one BEF comprises a reflective polarizerBEF (i.e., a DBEF). The brightness-enhancing features and BEFs caninclude polarizers, reflective polarizers, light extraction features,light recycling features, or any brightness-enhancing features known inthe art. The BEFs and brightness-enhancing features 1650 can includeconventional BEFs. For example, the BEFs can include a first layerhaving pitches or prisms having a first pitch angle, and at least asecond layer having pitches or prisms having a second pitch angle. Instill further embodiments, the BLU can include a third BEF layer havingpitches or prisms having a third pitch angle. Suitable BEFs includeconventional BEFs, including BEFs available from 3M™, including the 3M™Vikuiti™ brightness enhancement films.

In certain embodiments, the one or more BEFs can be one or more separateor distinct layers from the QD film and the LGP. In other embodiments,as described above, at least one of the LGP or barrier layers comprisesat least one BEF. In still other embodiments, the QDs are disposed inone or more BEFs, such as a bottom, middle, or top BEF, such that the QDfilm and the one or more BEFs are wholly or partially integrated in thesame layer. In certain embodiments, the QD phosphor material can beformed into an appropriate BEF. For example, the QD phosphor materiallayer can comprise brightness-enhancing features at the top and/orbottom surfaces of the QD phoshor material layer. In certainembodiments, the QD BLU comprises a first population of QDs (e.g., redlight emitting QDs) disposed in the QD phosphor material layer, a secondpopulation of QDs (e.g., green light emitting QDs) disposed in a firstBEF disposed above the QD phosphor material layer, and suitably at leasta second BEF disposed above the first BEF. In certain embodiments, theQD BLU comprises at least two BEFs, wherein a first BEF comprises afirst population of QDs (e.g., red light emitting QDs), and a second BEFcomprises a second population of QDs (e.g., green light emitting QDs).

In preferred embodiments, the one or more BEFs are chosen to reflect orrefract a high percentage of light back toward the QD phosphor materiallayer, whereby the primary light recycling is increased, and the opticalpath length of primary light is further increased in the QD phosphormaterial.

The QD-comprising BEFs can be formed using conventional BEF methods andmaterials such that the BEF material is the host matrix material of theQD phosphor material, or the BEF can comprise any suitable QD matrixmaterial, including any suitable matrix materials mentioned herein.

Inter-Element Media Materials

The QD lighting device of the present invention can comprise one or moremedium materials between adjacent elements of the lighting device. Thedevice can include one or more medium, material disposed between any ofthe adjacent elements in the device, including the primary light sourcesand the LGP, the LGP and the QD film, between different layers orregions within the QD phosphor material, the QD phosphor material andone or more barrier layers, the QD phosphor material and the LGP, the QDphosphor material and one or more BEF, diffuser, reflector, or otherfeatures; between multiple barrier layers, or between any other elementsof the lighting device. The one or more media can include any suitablematerials, including, but not limited to, a vacuum, air, gas, opticalmaterials, adhesives, optical adhesives, glass, polymers, solids,liquids, gels, cured materials, optical coupling materials,index-matching or index-mismatching materials, index-gradient materials,cladding or anti-cladding materials, spacers, epoxy, silica gel,silicones, any matrix materials described herein, brightness-enhancingmaterials, scattering or diffuser materials, reflective oranti-reflective materials, wavelength-selective materials,wavelength-selective anti-reflective materials, color filters, or othersuitable media known in the art. Suitable media materials includeoptically transparent, non-yellowing, pressure-sensitive opticaladhesives. Suitable materials include silicones, silicone gels, silicagel, epoxies (e.g., Loctite™ Epoxy E-30CL), acrylates (e.g., 3M™Adhesive 2175), and matrix materials mentioned herein. The one or moremedia materials can be applied as a curable gel or liquid and curedduring or after deposition, or pre-formed and pre-cured prior todeposition. Suitable curing methods include UV curing, thermal curing,chemical curing, or other suitable curing methods known in the art.Suitably, index-matching media materials can be chosen to minimizeoptical losses between elements of the lighting device.

Scattering

QD-based phosphors and related systems exhibit unique complexitiescompared to traditional lighting systems. For example, most traditionallighting systems involving LED packages require highly directional lightfrom, the source LED. However, in certain embodiments of the presentinvention, a highly diffuse and primary light source is preferred toincrease the primary light path in the QD phosphor material. Asillustrated in FIG. 8, QDs naturally emit light isotropically, meaningthat the secondary light 816 produced by each QD 813 will emit in alldirections from the QD surface. Quite differently, a typical source LEDpackage emits primary light 814 in a more unidirectional or Lambertianmanner, rather than isotropically. As a result, the respective radiationpatterns emitted by the LED primary light source and the QD phosphormaterial will be different. These differences in radiation patternscontribute to non-uniformity of color and brightness in a lightingdevice (e.g., a display) encompassing the QD phosphor. The presentinvention includes certain methods and devices which correct thesenon-uniformities in color and brightness. Additionally, theunidirectional emission pattern of the primary light source limits thenatural path length of the primary light in the BLU. The presentinvention includes methods and devices for scattering light, such asprimary light, to increase the path length of primary light in the QDphosphor material of the QD film, thereby increasing secondary lightemission and efficiency.

The present invention includes methods and devices for manipulation ofprimary light to increase the optical path length of primary light in aQD light conversion film. In preferred embodiments, the manipulation ofprimary light includes increasing scattering of the primary light in theQD phosphor material of the QD film. As used to herein, “scattering”refers to the deflection or redirection of light to change itsdirectional trajectory to a more isotropic or diffuse (i.e., lessLambertion or unidirectional) emission path upon incidence of one ormore scattering features. In preferred embodiments, the mechanism ofscattering is primarily due to Mie scattering and the difference in theindex of refraction of the scattering features and the surroundingmaterial, such as the QD phosphor material. An illustration of Miescattering is shown in FIGS. 27A and 27B, which depicts the scatteringof unidirectional primary light 2714 a to more diffuse primary light2714 b for different-sized scattering beads 2740 a, 2740 b. In certainembodiments, the light scattering mechanism of the scattering featurescan comprise Mie scattering, refraction, reflection, diffuse refractionor reflection, sub-surface refraction or reflection, diffusetransmittance, diffraction, or any suitable combination thereof.Notably, the QD film comprising scattering features provides acombination scattering/diffuser film layer and QD light conversion filmlayer, thereby eliminating the need for separate phosphor and diffuserfilms in the display BLU.

As will be understood by persons having ordinary skill in the art, thescattering mechanisms will depend on a number of factors, including thecharacteristics of the primary light, matrix materials, and thescattering features. For example, the scattering induced by thescattering features will depend on the wavelength(s), direction, andother properties of light being scattered: the refractive indices of thematerials, the index change between the features and the surroundingmatrix, any index change within the particle, the molecular structureand grain boundary of the scattering features: the scattering featuredimensions, density, volume, shape, surface structure, location, andorientation; and more. Although some absorption by the scatteringfeatures can be tolerated, preferred scattering materials will exhibitzero or minimal light absorbance to allow for highly elastic scatteringand efficiency. Dynamic light scattering techniques, such as those knownin the art, can be used to determine the ideal characteristics for thescattering features in a particular lighting device of the presentinvention. Trial and error methods may also be used to determine thebest possible configuration for a particular lighting device embodiment.Additionally, theoretical calculations can also be used to approximatescattering. For example, Mie Theory calculations known in the art can beused to describe the scattering process in embodiments comprising adispersion of dielectric spheres similar in size to the wavelength ofscattered light.

In preferred embodiments of the present invention, primary light isselectively scattered to change the directionality of the primary light,resulting in an increased probability of QD excitation and secondarylight emission, and thus also decreasing the amount of primary lightthat passes through the remote phosphor material without being absorbedby the QDs. In a preferred class of embodiments, the scattering featurescomprise one or more scattering features having a refractive indexdifferent than that of the host matrix material at the interface betweenthe scattering feature and the host matrix material. For example, thescattering features can comprise scattering domains 1330 b, as shown inFIG. 13B. The scattering domains are spatial regions comprising amaterial having refractive index different than that of another matrixmaterial, whereby primary light is redirected in the QD phosphormaterial. In a preferred embodiment, as depicted in FIG. 27C, thescattering features comprise scattering particles 2740 are dispersedthroughout the QD phosphor material 2704. Upon entering the QD phosphormaterial, primary light 2714 a will either transmit completely throughthe remote phosphor material, be scattered by one or more scatteringparticles, and/or be absorbed by a QD 2713 and cause secondary lightemission 2716. In this manner, less QDs are required to achieve adesired secondary emission, since changing the directionality of theincoming primary light will increase the probability of QD absorption.In additional embodiments, the scattering features can comprisescattering voids, such as air bubbles or gaps in the QD phosphormaterial. In still other embodiments, the one or more barrier layers caninclude scattering features to increase scattering in the QD phosphormaterial, as described above regarding the barrier layer features andFIGS. 15B-15I. Suitably, the QD film comprises at least one barrierlayer disposed below the QD phosphor material, wherein the at least onebarrier layer comprises scattering features 1550, whereby the scatteringfeatures scatter primary light transmitted into the QD phosphormaterial. In yet another class of embodiments, the QD film comprises atleast one population of primary light emitting phosphors in the QDfilm—e.g., QDs which emit additional primary light, such as blue light,such that the isotropic primary blue light emitted by the QDs isabsorbed by the secondary light emitting QDs in the QD film. In oneexample embodiment, the scattering features comprise blue light emittingQDs dispersed in the QD phosphor material. The blue light emitting QDscan be dispersed evenly throughout the QD phosphor material, the blueQDs can be disposed below the secondary light emitting QDs in the QDphosphor material, or at least a portion of the blue QDs can be disposedbelow at least a portion of the secondary light emitting QDs (e.g., thered and green light emitting QDs).

The most important characteristics for controlling scattering by thescattering particles will include the refractive index, size, volume,and density of the scattering particles. As will be understood bypersons having ordinary skill in the art, the scattering beadcharacteristics can be tuned to achieve ideal scattering in the QDphosphor material.

Suitable scattering particles comprise any suitable optical materialsknown in the art: alumina, sapphire, air or other gas, hollow beads orparticles such as air- or gas-filled materials (e.g., air/gas-filledglass or polymer); polymers, including PS, PC, PMMA, acrylic, methylmethacrylate, styrene, melamine resin, formaldehyde resin, or a melamineand formaldehyde resin (e.g., Epostar™ 12 melamine-formaldehyde resinbeads, available from Nippon Shokubai Co., Ltd.); and any suitablecombination thereof. Preferred scattering particle materials includeglass, such as high-refractive index optical glass, silica glass orborosilicate glass. In a preferred embodiment, the QD phosphor materialcomprises APS-coated or PEI-coated QDs and epoxy, and the scatteringparticles comprise silica or borosilicate. Preferred scatteringparticles comprise one or more optical materials having a refractiveindex higher than that of the surrounding material.

In certain embodiments, the scattering particles comprise a firstplurality of scattering particles having a first index of refraction anda second plurality of scattering particles having a second index ofrefraction which is different than the first index of refraction. Forexample, the scattering particles can include a first plurality ofsilica beads having a refractive index of about 1.43 and a secondplurality of melamine-formaldehyde resin beads (e.g., Epostar™ S12melamine-formaldehyde resin beads, available from Nippon Shokubai Co.,Ltd.) having a refractive index of about 1.66. In one exampleembodiment, the silica beads can have a diameter of about 1 μm, and themelamine-formaldehyde resin beads can have a diameter of about 1.5 μm.

Preferably, the scattering features comprise a monodisperse populationof spherical particles having a smooth surface. Suitably, the scatteringparticles can have a maximum dimension which is not greater than about 4times the wavelength of the preferentially scattered light—e.g., theprimary light; preferably blue primary light. Preferably, the scatteringparticles have a maximum dimension which is similar to the wavelength ofthe preferentially scattered light—e.g., the primary light; preferablyblue primary light. The scattering particles can be spherical particleshaving a diameter of less than 5 μm. Preferably, the primary lightcomprises blue light and—the scattering particles have a diameter ofabout 0.5 μm to about 2 μm, 0.5 μm to 2 μm, about 0.5 μm to about 1.5μm, 0.5 μm to 1.5 μm, about 0.5 μm to about 1 μm, 0.5 μm to 1 μm, 0.5μm, about 0.5 μm, 0.75 μm, about 0.75 μm, 1.5 μm, about 1.5 μm, 1.75 μm,about 1.75 μm, 2 μm, or about 2 μm. Most preferably, the scatteringparticles have a diameter of 1 μm or about 1 μm. Preferably, thescattering particles comprise a monodisperse population of sphericalparticles, which are preferably embedded or disposed within the QDphosphor material.

The scattering particles can have any suitable concentration in the QDphosphor material. Preferably, the scattering particles have a densityof about 2 g/cm³, or greater. In preferred embodiments, the materialdensity of the scattering beads will be chosen to optimize dispersion inthe QD phosphor material. For example, the material density of thescattering particles can be higher than the QD phosphor material topromote settling toward the bottom of the QD phosphor material.Preferably, the material density of the scattering particles is similarto the QD phosphor material to prevent settling toward the bottom of theQD phosphor material prior to curing. The concentration of scatteringparticles can be about 1% to about 15% by volume, or about 2% to about30% by weight, depending on the characteristics of the scatteringparticles and the QD phosphor material. Suitably, the scatteringparticles comprise spherical beads comprising silica, borosilicate, orpolystyrene, preferably silica or borosilicate, most preferably silica;and having a diameter of about 1-2 μm, most preferably 1 μm or about 1μm. Preferably, the QD phosphor material comprises spherical beadshaving a diameter of 1 μm, or about 1 μm, wherein the concentration ofbeads is about 1-15% by volume or about 2-30% by weight, more preferablyabout 2.5-10% by volume or about 5-20% by weight, most preferably about5-10% by volume or about 10-20% by weight. As will be understood bypersons having ordinary skill in the art, the QD phosphor materialvolume or concentration should be adjusted for the volume of QD phosphormaterial displaced by the scattering beads.

In other embodiments, the scattering features comprise surface featuresformed on one or more surface of one or more of the LGP and barrierlayers. For example, the scattering features can comprisemicro-textures, random micro-textured patterns, prisms, pitches,pyramids, grooves, lenses, bumps, waves, scratches, domes, or the like,including any suitable features mentioned herein, including thosementioned above in regards to FIGS. 15-16 and 21-22. In any of theembodiments mentioned herein, the scattering features preferably have asize on the order of less than 5 μm—e.g., a size of about 5 μm or less,about 2 μm or less, about 1.5 μm or less, about 1 μm or less, or about0.5 μm or less.

The present invention relates to a QD light conversion film which usesan unexpectedly low concentration of quantum dots. In one experimentalexample, a QD film was formed in an inert environment using Loctite™epoxy E-30CL, whereby QDs embedded in APS particles were mixed into theepoxy to form a transparent two-phase system upon curing theQD-APS-epoxy emulsion into a 250 μm thick layer. It would normally beexpected that an optical density of about 0.5 would be required toachieve a proper white point using red and green phosphors that rely onblue LED primary light transmission to cover the NTSC color gamuttriangle (shown in FIG. 3). For example, this is the case in a QR remotephosphor package. However, it was discovered, much to the surprise ofthe inventors, that the QD film according to one embodiment of presentinvention resulted in a drop in required QD concentration of about10-25×. This large reduction in optical density of the QR phosphormaterial makes the concept of a film feasible and cost-effective.

In one experimental example, a QD film was made in an inert environmentusing Loctite™ epoxy E-30CL, whereby QDs embedded in APS particles weremixed into the epoxy to form a transparent two-phase system upon curingthe QD-APS-epoxy emulsion into a 250 μm film with an optical density of0.05. The film was placed on top of a light guide in a cell phonedisplay, and almost no green or red light was detected. Anotheridentical formulation was made, and 5% by volume 2 μm silica beads wereadded. Due to the large refractive index difference between the epoxy(1.52) and the silica beads (1.42), the display with the QD filmexhibited an idea white point and increased brightness.

Experimental Results Without Scattering Particles: With ScatteringParticles: CIE x = 0.201 CIE x = 0.300 CIE y = 0.115 CIE y = 0.280 L =2660 nits L = 5020 nits

In additional experimental examples, a QD film having scattering beadswas compared to a QR capillary remote phosphor package. The QD filmallowed for QD reductions of 15× and 25× compared to QR phosphorpackages in the same mobile phone and laptop devices, as well asimproved white point and color uniformity, increased brightness, lessblue leakage, and reduced temperature of the QD phosphor package.

Multiple arrangements of the scattering particles can achieve thebeneficial effects provided by the present invention. For example, asshown in FIGS. 24A, 25A, 27C, and 28A-28F, the scattering particles arepreferably disposed within the same layer or medium as the QDs. In onepreferred class of embodiments, the QD film comprises at least onepopulation of QDs and at least one population of scattering particles,wherein at least a first portion of the scattering particles aredisposed below at least a first portion of the QDs, such that the firstportion of scattering particles are closer in proximity to the incidentprimary light than the first portion of QDs. Most preferably, thescattering particles are dispersed uniformly (i.e., evenly orhomogeneously) throughout the QD phosphor material in a colloidalfashion. The scattering beads can be sonicated prior to deposition inorder to promote even dispersion within the QD phosphor material.

As shown in FIGS. 24B-24H and 25B-25I, the scattering particles 2440,2540 can be disposed more predominantly in particular regions of the QDphosphor material 2404, 2505, such as toward the top, middle, bottom, oredges of the QD phosphor material, or any suitable combination thereof.The scattering particles can be closer or further from the incidentsurface of the primary light. The scattering particles can have agradient density, increasing or decreasing from top to bottom, bottom totop, one or more edges, or any other location within the QD phosphormaterial 2404, 2504. In embodiments having multiple QD phosphor materiallayers, as shown in FIGS. 26B3-26G, the scattering particles 2640 can bedispersed within one or more QD phosphor material layers of multiple QDphosphor material layers 2604 a, 2604 b, as shown in FIGS. 26D-26E, orbetween multiple such layers, as shown in FIG. 26F-26G. The scatteringparticles can be embedded in one or more matrix materials, as shown inFIGS. 26D-26F, or deposited without a matrix material, as shown in FIG.26G. The different QD phosphor layers can have differing arrangements orcharacteristics of scattering particles. For example, the different QDphosphor layers can have different scattering particle characteristics.For example, scattering particle populations 2640 a and 2640 b, shown inFIG. 26D, can have different sizes, materials, refractive indices,material densities, concentrations, quantities, gradients, orarrangements. For example, the multiple QD phosphor layers can compriseany combination of different layers described above regarding FIGS. 23,24, and 25. Preferably, the scattering particles are disposed in thesame layer as each population of QDs so as to maximize themulti-directional dispersion of primary light within each QD remotephosphor layer comprising QDs, and thus maximize the probability ofabsorption by the QDs. While only one, two, or three QD phosphormaterial layers are shown in FIG. 26, the QD film can comprise anysuitable number of QD phosphor material layers. The multiple layers canbe distinct from one another, or merged as a single QD phosphor materiallayer.

In certain embodiments, as illustrated in FIGS. 29-31, the scatteringparticles 2940, 3040, 3140 are disposed adjacent the QD phosphormaterial. For example, the scattering particles can be disposed directlyadjacent the QD phosphor material. The scattering particles can bedisposed on or near the bottom (FIG. 29A), top (FIG. 29B), or both sides(FIG. 29C) of the QD phosphor layer. The scattering particles can bedisposed in direct contact with the QD phosphor material as shown inFIGS. 29A-29C, and/or separated by one or more barrier layers of thedevice, as shown in FIGS. 30A-30C and 31A-31C. The scattering particlescan be disposed above and/or below the LGP, as shown in FIGS. 31A-31C.As described above, the scattering particles can be located adjacent,on, or within the LGP, as shown in FIGS. 24-25 and FIGS. 31A-31C. Thescattering particles can be disposed within one or more of the barrierlayers of the device—e.g., within one or more of the barrier layers 1420a-1420 d, 1422 a-1422 d, shown in FIG. 14A-14C.

As will be understood by persons having ordinary skill in the art, anyof the methods and devices related to primary light manipulation orscattering can be combined with any of the QD film embodiments of theinvention, including those embodiments specifically described herein.

Layers and Spatial Variations

As described above, the QD film of the present invention includes a QDphosphor material, layer. In preferred embodiments, the QD phosphormaterial layer will have a uniform thickness over the entire displayviewing plane surface area. In other embodiments, the QD phosphormaterial layer can have a varied thickness over the viewing planesurface area, and can have a wedge-shape increasing or decreasing inthickness away from one or more edges of the QD film. The QD film can beformed having any suitable shape. In preferred embodiments, the QDphosphor material and QD film form a flat film having a uniformthickness over the entire display viewing plane surface area. Inembodiments having multiple QD phosphor material layers, as shown inFIGS. 26B-26G, the thickness of each layer can have a thickness chosenfor ideal curing.

Multiple arrangements of QDs and/or other features of the QD phosphormaterial (e.g., scattering particles) can achieve the beneficial effectsprovided by the present invention. For example, as shown in FIGS. 23A,24A, and 27C, the QDs are dispersed uniformly (i.e., evenly orhomogeneously) throughout the QD phosphor material in a colloidalfashion.

In certain embodiments, the QD phosphor material of the QD film caninclude multiple layers or spatial regions having different elements orcharacteristics. For example, the QD film can include multiple QDphosphor material layers having different matrix materials comprisingdiffering refractive indices. As another example, the QD phosphormaterial can comprise a first layer or region comprising a firstpopulation of QDs capable of emitting secondary light having a firstwavelength (e.g., green light-emitting QDs), and a second layer orregion comprising a second population of QDs capable of emittingsecondary light having a second wavelength (e.g., red light-emittingQDs). The QD film may further comprise a population of scattering beadsor other scattering features disposed in the same layer as one or moreof the QD populations, and/or in at least a third layer or region. Theat least third layer or region can be disposed adjacent and/or betweenone or more QD-containing layers. In still other embodiments, themultiple layers or spatial regions of the QD phosphor material cancomprise spatially varied characteristics, such as QD concentration,scattering bead concentration, or other characteristics. For example, asshown in FIGS. 23B-24H, 24B-24H, and 25B-25I, the QDs 2313, 2513 and/orscattering particles 2440, 2540 can be disposed more predominantly inparticular regions of the QD phosphor material, such as toward the top,middle, bottom, or edges of the QD phosphor material, or any suitablecombination thereof. The QDs and/or scattering particles can be disposedcloser or further from the incident surface of the primary light. TheQDs and/or scattering particles can have a gradient density, increasingor decreasing from top to bottom, bottom to top, one or more edges, orany other location within one or more layers of the QD phosphormaterial. In additional embodiments, the QD film can comprise one ormore layers comprising a blank matrix material—e.g., formed as topand/or bottom layers of the QD phosphor material. Such blank matrixmaterial layers can provide increased adhesion to adjacent layers suchas barrier layers, provide additional thickness, provide opticalmatching to adjacent layers, or can function as a barrier layer.

The QD film can have one QD phosphor material layer, as shown in FIG.26A. In preferred embodiments, the QD film comprises a QD phosphormaterial having two or more layers, such as layers 2604 a and 2604 bshown in FIG. 26B. In preferred embodiments, the QD phosphor materialcomprises multiple layers, as shown in FIGS. 26B-26G, and the QDs 2613and/or scattering features (e.g., scattering particles) 2640 can bedispersed within one or more QD phosphor material layers of the multipleQD phosphor material layers. The different QD phosphor material layerscan have the same or different arrangements or characteristics of QDsand/or scattering features. For example, the different QD phosphorlayers can have different QD characteristics in one or more of thedifferent QD phosphor material layers, such as different QD emissioncolors, concentrations, sizes, materials, gradients, or arrangements.Additionally or alternatively, the different QD phosphor layers can havedifferent scattering particle characteristics, such as differingscattering particle sizes, materials, refractive indices, densities,quantities, gradients, or arrangements. For example, the multiple QDphosphor layers can comprise any combination of different layersdescribed above regarding FIGS. 23, 24, and 25. For example, in one ormore of the QD phosphor material layers, as shown in FIGS. 23B-23H,FIGS. 24B-24H, and FIGS. 25B-25I, the QDs 2313, 2513 and/or thescattering beads 2440, 2540 can be disposed more predominantly inparticular regions of the QD phosphor material 2304, 2504, such astoward the top, middle, bottom, or edges of the QD phosphor material, orany suitable combination thereof. The QDs and/or scattering particlescan be closer to or further from the incident surface of the primarylight. The QDs and/or scattering particles can have a gradient density,increasing or decreasing from top to bottom, bottom to top, one or moreedges, or any other location within the QD phosphor material. Inpreferred embodiments having multiple QD phosphor material layers, theQDs 2613, 2613 a, 2613 b can be dispersed within one or more QD phosphormaterial layers of multiple QD phosphor material layers 2604 a, 2604 b,2604 c or between multiple such layers, as shown in FIG. 26F-26G. Thescattering particles can be embedded in one or more matrix materials, asshown in FIGS. 26D-26F, or deposited without a matrix material, as shownin FIG. 26G. The different QD phosphor layers can have differingarrangements or characteristics of scattering particles. For example,the different QD phosphor layers can have different scattering particlecharacteristics. For example, QD populations 2613 a and 2613 b, as shownin FIGS. 26C, 26D), 26F, and 26G, can have different emission colors,concentrations, sizes, materials, gradients, arrangements, or anycombination thereof. In preferred embodiments, scattering particles2640, 2640 a, 2640 b are disposed in the same layer as each populationof QDs so as to maximize the multi-directional dispersion of primarylight within each QD remote phosphor layer comprising QDs, and thusmaximize the probability of primary light absorption by the QDs. Whileonly one, two, or three QD phosphor material layers are shown in FIG.26, the QD film can comprise any suitable number of QD phosphor materiallayers. The multiple layers can be distinct from one another, or mergedas a single QD phosphor material layer. Methods for forming the multipleQD phosphor material layers can include applying and curing each layerprior to applying the next layer, or applying multiple layers and curingthe multiple layers at the same time.

In one class of embodiments, the QD film remote phosphor package of thepresent invention includes a QD phosphor material comprising at leastone population of QD phosphors. The QDs are chosen based on, the desiredemission properties of the lighting application for which the QD film isused. The phosphor material converts at least a portion of the primarylight into different wavelengths of light. The QD phosphor material caninclude any QDs suitable for emitting secondary light upondown-conversion of primary light emitted from a primary light source andabsorbed by the QDs. In preferred embodiments, the QD phosphor materialincludes a first population of quantum dots of a material and size whichemit red secondary light upon excitation by the primary light, and asecond population of quantum dots of a material and size which emitgreen secondary light upon excitation by the primary light. In suchembodiments, a portion of the blue primary light, the red secondarylight, and the green secondary light are collectively emitted from theQD film and the overall lighting device as white light. Each populationof QDs can be disposed in the same or different QD phosphor materiallayers. In a preferred embodiment, the QD film comprises a first QDphosphor material layer comprising a population of red light emittingQDs, a second QD phosphor material layer comprising a population ofgreen light emitting QDs, and at least one population of scatteringparticles disposed within one or more of the first QD phosphor materiallayer, the second QD phosphor material layer, and a separate QD filmlayer.

In additional embodiments, the QD phosphor material can suitablycomprise additional and/or different QD populations for emittingadditional primary light (e.g., blue light), or secondary light of anadditional and/or different color than the red and green light-emittingQD populations (e.g., yellow light, or a different shade of red or greenlight). In one example embodiment, the phosphor material comprises athird population of QDs of a material and size which emit blue lightupon excitation by the primary light, which primary light can includeblue or ultraviolet light, for example. In other embodiments, thephosphor material may comprise a population of quantum dots or acombination of different populations of quantum dots of a material andsize which emit light at the desired wavelength of light emission uponexcitation. The phosphor material can comprise a population of quantumdots of a material and size which emit red, orange, yellow, green, orblue light; or multiple populations of quantum dots which comprise anycombination thereof.

In certain embodiments, the QD film can include a plurality of spatialregions having multiple different light emission characteristics. In oneembodiment, the QD film comprises a first plurality of spatial regionscomprising a first population of QDs capable of emitting light having afirst wavelength or wavelength range (e.g., green light-emitting QDs),and at least a second plurality of spatial regions comprising a secondpopulation of QDs capable of emitting light having a second wavelengthor wavelength range which is different than the first wavelength orwavelength range (e.g., red light-emitting QDs). The QD film can furthercomprise a third plurality of spatial regions comprising a thirdpopulation of QDs capable of emitting light having a third wavelength orwavelength range which is different from at least one of the first andsecond wavelengths or wavelength ranges (e.g., blue light-emitting QDs).The QD film can comprise additional pluralities of spatial regionscomprising additional populations of QDs capable of emitting lighthaving additional wavelengths or wavelength ranges different from atleast one of the first, second, and third wavelengths or wavelengthranges. For example, the QD film can include a plurality of distinctspatial regions or pixels, wherein each pixel comprises a plurality ofsmaller spatial regions or subpixels which emit different colors oflight. For example, the QD phosphor layer can include a plurality ofpixels, wherein each pixel includes a first subpixel comprising one ormore red light-emitting QDs, a second subpixel comprising one or moregreen light-emitting QDs, and a third subpixel comprising one or moreblue light-emitting QDs.

Color Tuning and White Point

Preferred embodiments include a first population of quantum dots whichemit red secondary light and a second population of quantum dots whichemit green secondary light, most preferably wherein the red and greenlight-emitting QD populations are excited by a portion of the blueprimary light to provide white light. Suitable embodiments furthercomprise a third population of quantum dots which emit blue secondarylight upon excitation. The respective portions of red, green, and bluelight can be controlled to achieve a desired white point for the whitelight emitted by the device. For a quantum dot phosphor materialaccording to the present invention, the total amount of primary lightwhich is converted versus the amount which is passed through the remotephosphor is a function of the phosphor concentration. Thus, the amountof primary light converted to secondary light will depend on theconcentration of quantum dots in the phosphor material in the phosphorpackage. The resulting color and brightness of the light emitted fromthe device can be controlled by changing the ratio and/or concentrationof each population of quantum dots in the phosphor material—i.e., thegreen and red light-emitting phosphor quantum dot populations in thephosphor material. Additionally, the color and brightness can becontrolled by changing the characteristics of the scattering particlesin the QD phosphor material, such as the size, quantity, material,concentration, and arrangement of scattering particles.

In order to achieve a desired light output, such as a desired whitepoint and brightness, each of the primary light source, the QDs, and thescattering particles can be toggled, either alone or in combination. Inpreferred embodiments, each of the primary and secondary light sourcesare chosen to maximize the efficiency of the system and provide thedesired color and brightness of light emitted from the primary andsecondary light sources. For example, the primary light source can bechosen based on optimal efficiency for the desired emissioncharacteristics, and the primary light source may also be chosen to havean excitation wavelength at which the maximum amount of energy isabsorbed and reemitted by the phosphor material. The QDs can be adjustedto provide the desired output when combined with the primary lightsource. The primary light source can be chosen based on establishedstandards of the phosphor material. However, in preferred embodiments,the QD phosphor material is tailored to provide the desired light outputbased on established characteristics of the primary light source. Theability to toggle the QDs to accurately achieve a desired light emissionoutput is one advantage of the many advantages of size-tunable QDs as aphosphor material in lighting devices such as display BLUs. In preferredembodiments, the QDs are chosen based on their emission wavelength andspectral width (i.e., color and color purity), as well as quantumefficiency, to maximize brightness of the secondary light emission.Adjusting the concentration of QDs and the ratio of different QDpopulations will affect the optical density of the QD phosphor material.

Suitably, the QDs will be loaded in the QD film at a ratio of betweenabout 0.001% and about 75% by volume, depending upon the application, QDcharacteristics, QD film characteristics, and other BLU characteristics.The QD concentrations and ratios can readily be determined by theordinarily skilled artisan and are described herein further with regardto specific applications. In exemplary preferred embodiments, the QDphosphor material, of the QD film comprises less than about 20%, lessthan about 15%, less than about 10%, less than about 5%, less than 1%,or less than about 1% QDs by volume.

Several factors can be toggled to achieve a desired light output,whether the desired light emission is a single color of light emitted bya single population of QDs, or a mixed color of light emitted by bothprimary and secondary light and/or multiple different populations of QDswhich emit different colors of light. In a preferred embodiment, the QDBLU emits white light comprising a mixture of blue light from theprimary light source and secondary light including both red and greenlight emitted by respective populations of QDs. The primary andsecondary light sources can be chosen to achieve a desired white pointfor the QD BLU. In preferred embodiments, the QD phosphor materialcomprises multiple layers having different green and/or red lightemitting QD concentrations. Preferably, the green and red light emittingQDs are disposed in separate and distinct layers of the QD phosphormaterial. In other suitable embodiments, the first and second QDpopulations are formed in the same QD phosphor material layer(s).

Suitable methods for forming the QD film include a multi-point,iterative formulation for achieving any desired white point, in apreferred embodiment, the method of forming the QD phosphor material ofthe QD film includes an iterative multi-point formulation for whitepoint targeting, wherein the QD phosphor material is formed startingwith a first nominal mixture of QDs in a matrix material comprising afirst percentage of red and green light emitting QDs in a base matrixmaterial, then adding one or more additional mixtures of QDs in a matrixmaterial, a blank matrix material, or a mixture of scattering particlesin a matrix material. In one example embodiment, as shown in FIGS. 32,33A-33C, the method includes a five-point formulation for white pointtargeting, wherein the QD phosphor material is formed from (A) a firstnominal mixture of APS-coated QDs (or more preferably PEI-coated QDs) inan epoxy matrix material, to which one or more of (B) a second, (C) athird, (D) a fourth, and (E) a fifth mixture of APS-coated (orPEI-coated) QDs in epoxy is added to the nominal mixture (A). Therespective amounts of each mixture can be included in any suitableamount, depending on the desired white point, brightness and thicknessof the QD phosphor material layer, as will be understood by a persons ofordinary skill in the art. Suitably, an iterative process is used toachieve the desired white point and brightness, wherein the mixtures areadded independently, until the desired emission characteristics andthickness are achieved for the QD film. After each mixture is added, theQD phosphor material can be tested for white point and brightness, andthe process can be stopped upon reaching the desired white point,brightness, and QD phosphor material layer thickness. Suitably, the QDfilm and emission characteristics, including the optical density,emission wavelengths, FWHM, white point, and brightness, can beperiodically tested using ultraviolet-visible and fluorescencespectroscopy, or other suitable methods of spectrophotometry known inthe art.

In one exemplary embodiment, the nominal mixture (A) comprises 30% byvolume green light emitting QDs and 15% by volume red light emittingQDs. To the mixture (A), a suitable amount of one or more of themixtures (B) comprising 20% by volume green light emitting QDs, (C)comprising 20% by volume red light emitting QDs, (D) 20% green and 20%red, and (E) 10% green and 10% red, can be added in any suitable amount.As shown in FIG. 33C, the mixture (B) can be added to achieve apredominantly more green light 3301, the mixture (C) can be added toachieve a predominantly more red light 3303, and either of the mixtures(D) and (E) can be added to achieve similar proportions of more red andgreen light 3302. Mixture (D) can be added when much more red and greenlight is desired, and/or when less film thickness is desired to be addedto the QD phosphor material. Mixture (E) can be added when less red andgreen light is desired, and/or when more film thickness is desired. Aswill be understood by persons of ordinary skill in the art, absorbanceof secondary light by the QDs will likely occur, and will requireadjustments to balance such absorbance. For example, in embodimentshaving green and red light emitting QDs, a portion, of the greensecondary light will be absorbed and reemitted as red secondary light.To remedy this, a higher percentage or concentration of green lightemitting QDs will be required to balance the additional red secondarylight produced by green light absorbance. In preferred embodiments, eachof the mixtures (A)-(E) further comprises a population of scatteringparticles, wherein the scattering particles can have the same ordifferent concentration in each mixture. In other suitable embodiments,the scattering particles are added to the QD phosphor material in aseparate mixture of scattering particles and a matrix material. In oneexemplary QD film embodiment, the final QD phosphor material formulationcomprises about 55% by volume green light emitting ligand-coated QDs,about 25% by volume red light emitting ligand-coated QDs, about 5% byvolume scattering particles, and about 30% by volume matrix material.Preferably, the ligand material comprises APS, the matrix materialcomprises epoxy, and the scattering particles comprise silica orborosilicate beads. More preferably, the ligand material comprises PEI,the matrix material comprises epoxy, and the scattering particlescomprise silica or borosilicate beads.

In an example embodiment, the concentration of quantum dots in thephosphor material is set so that roughly 20% of the incident light willpass through the phosphor without conversion into secondary light—i.e.,20% of the primary blue light will exit the phosphor material. Theremainder of the primary light entering the phosphor material isabsorbed by the quantum dots and re-emitted as secondary light or lostdue to inefficiencies. For example, in the example embodiment where 20%of the blue primary light transmits through and exits the phosphorpackage, 32% of the primary light is re-emitted as green light and 40%is re-emitted as red light. In this example embodiment, the QDs of thephosphor material have a quantum yield of about 90%, so the remaining 8%of the primary light is lost due to absorption without reemission in thephosphor material. Since some of the green secondary light in thephosphor is absorbed and re-emitted as red light by the redlight-emitting QDs, additional changes in the ratios of the green andred quantum dots in the phosphor material may be needed to achieve thefinal desired output emission spectrum from the top plate of thephosphor.

As will be understood by persons of ordinary skill in the art thespecific percentages of the different QD populations are not limiting,and any suitable mixture or mixtures of QDs and matrix materials can beemployed to form the QD film. Additionally, any of the QD filmembodiments described herein can be formed using the multi-formulationmethod described herein, for example, including multi-layered QDphosphor materials and QD phosphor material layers having different orvaried QD and/or scattering particle characteristics.

QD Phosphor Material Application

The QD phosphor material can be deposited by any suitable method knownin the art, including but not limited to painting, spraying,solvent-spraying, wet-coating, adhesive coating, spin-coating, tapecoating, or any suitable deposition method known in the art. Preferably,the QD phosphor material is cured after deposition. Suitable curingmethods include photo-curing, such as UV-curing, and thermal curing.Traditional laminate film processing methods, tape-coating methods,and/or roll-to-roll fabrication methods can be employed in forming theQD films of the present invention. The QD phosphor material can becoated directly onto the desired layer of the lighting device.Alternatively, the QD phosphor material can be formed into a solid layeras an independent element and subsequently applied to the BLU stack. TheQD phosphor material can be deposited on one or more barrier layers, theLGP, or another layer of the BLU.

In other lighting device embodiments (e.g., a down lighting device), theQD phosphor material, can be deposited on any suitable surface orsubstrate of the lighting device. In one example embodiment, the QDphosphor material can be deposited on the interior surface of thehousing of a lighting device, and the QD phosphor material canoptionally be sealed by depositing a barrier layer adjacent the QDphosphor material. In another example embodiment, the QD film is firstformed, suitably including barrier layers adjacent the QD phosphormaterial on the top and bottom sides, and the QD film is subsequentlymolded to form an emissive layer of the lighting device. In one exampleembodiment, the QD film is molded to form. (or fit) the exterior housingor walls of the lighting device.

In a preferred class of embodiments, the QD phosphor material isdeposited via wet-coating and thermally cured post-deposition. As shownin FIG. 34, illustrating a suitable method for forming the QD film, oneor more bottom barrier layers is provided in step 3410, one or more QDphosphor material mixtures are deposited onto the barrier substrate instep 3420 to form the QD phosphor material layer 3404, one or more topbarrier layers are deposited on the QD phosphor material in step 3430,the QD phosphor material is cured in step 3440, the QD film isoptionally sealed in step 3450, and the QD film is applied to thedesired lighting device, such as a display BLU, in step 3460.

In certain embodiments, each of the first and second barriers 3520, 3522can include glass sheets which are cut into smaller sections. Thiscutting can be done after any of steps 3430, 3440, and 3450. In suchembodiments, convenient roll-to-roll manufacturing can be employed toform the various layers of the device. In still further embodiments, thefirst and second glass plates can be provided in a size appropriate forthe device application prior to application of the QD phosphor material3420. Upon formation of the QD film remote phosphor package, the QD filmis optically coupled to one or more primary light sources, such as blueLEDs, such that light from the primary light sources is incident on thebottom surface of the bottom glass plate. Preferably, the QD film isdisposed above a LGP of a display BLU, such that the incident primarylight is entirely incident on the bottom plate. Most preferably, the QDfilm is diposed between the LGP and at least one BEF of a LCD BLU.

Preferably, the mixtures are thermally cured to form the QD phosphormaterial layer. In a preferred embodiment, the QD phosphor material iscoated directly onto a barrier layer of the QD film, and an additionalbarrier layer is subsequently deposited upon the QD phosphor material tocreate the QD film. A support substrate can be employed beneath thebarrier film for added strength, stability, and coating uniformity, andto prevent material inconsistency, air bubble formation, and wrinklingor folding of the barrier layer material or other materials.Additionally, one or more barrier layers are preferably deposited overthe QD phosphor material to seal the material between the top and bottombarrier layers. Suitably, the barrier layers can be deposited as alaminate film and optionally sealed or further processed, followed byincorporation of the QD film into the particular lighting device. The QDphosphor material deposition process can include additional or variedcomponents, as will be understood by persons of ordinary skill in theart. Such embodiments will allow for in-line process adjustments of theQD phosphor emission characteristics, such as brightness and color(e.g., to adjust the QD film BLU white point), as well as the QD filmthickness and other characteristics. Additionally, these embodimentswill allow for periodic testing of the QD film characteristics duringproduction, as well as any necessary toggling to achieve precise QD filmcharacteristics. Such testing and adjustments can also be accomplishedwithout changing the mechanical configuration of the processing line, asa computer program can be employed to electronically change therespective amounts of mixtures to be used in forming a QD film.

In a preferred process embodiment for forming the QD film, as shown inFIG. 35, different mixtures of QD phosphor materials are provided inseparate mixtures A, B, C, D, E prior to deposition. In one exampleembodiment, mixtures A-E can include the five mixtures described aboveregarding FIG. 33 and the five-point formulation method includingmixtures A, B, C, D, and E.

In another example embodiment, the process can include multiple mixturesof QD phosphor materials having different characteristics. For example,a first mixture A can include a first population of QDs capable ofemitting a first wavelength of secondary light (e.g., red light), and asecond mixture B can include a second population of QDs capable ofemitting a second wavelength of secondary light different from the firstwavelength (e.g., green light). The process can include additionalmixtures, such as a third mixture C comprising a third population of QDswhich emit red light having a different wavelength than the firstwavelength of red light, and a fourth mixture D comprising a fourthpopulation of QDs which emit green light having a different wavelengththan the second wavelength of green light. Any suitable ratio mixture ofany of the first, second, third, and fourth mixtures can be combined tocreate the desired QD phosphor material characteristics. Such mixturescan be further combined with at least a fifth mixture E comprising blankmatrix material (e.g., epoxy), a population of scattering beads, or acombination thereof. The mixtures can be deposited simultaneously orseparately, and can be cured individually or simultaneously.

In still another embodiment, the mixtures include multiple mixtures ofligand-coated QDs in an epoxy matrix material, wherein the mixtures havedifferent QD concentrations. For example, the process can include afirst mixture of ligand-coated QDs in epoxy having a first concentrationof red light-emitting QDs, a second mixture of ligand-coated QDs inepoxy having a second concentration of red light-emitting QD)s which ishigher than the first concentration, a third mixture of ligand-coatedQDs in epoxy having a third concentration of green light-emitting QDs,and a fourth mixture of ligand-coated QDs in epoxy having a fourthconcentration of green light-emitting QDs which is higher than that ofthe third concentration. Preferably, the ligand is APS or, morepreferably, PEI. Any suitable ratio mixture of any of the first, second,third, and fourth mixtures can be combined to create the desired QDphosphor material characteristics. Such mixtures can be further combinedwith at least a fifth mixture comprising a blank epoxy material, one ormore populations of scattering beads, or a combination thereof, to formthe QD phosphor material of the QD film.

In a preferred class of embodiments, the processes of the presentinvention can comprise forming a first mixture having a first QDconcentration, coating a substrate with the first mixture to from afirst layer of the QD phosphor material, forming a second mixture havinga second QD concentration, coating the substrate with the second mixtureto form a second layer of the QD phosphor material, and curing the firstand second QD phosphor material layers. In certain embodiments, theprocesses can further comprise repeating these steps with a thirdthrough i^(th) mixture of QDs, coating the substrate with the thirdthrough i^(th) mixtures to form third through i^(th) QD phosphormaterial layers, and curing the third through i^(th) QD phosphormaterial layers. The first through i^(th) layers can have the same ordifferent emission characteristics, QD types, QD concentrations, matrixmaterials, refractive indices, and/or scattering particle sizes,concentration, or materials; or other differing characteristics. Byproviding individual QD phosphor material layers, each with apotentially different characteristics, a QD film can be generated thathas a QD gradient throughout the overall layer, or other gradientproperties throughout the overall QD phosphor material layer. In otherembodiments, any of the characteristics of the individual layers can bethe same, or can be prepared in such a manner that the overallcharacteristic varies within an individual layer only, or from layer tolayer in a non-graded fashion. In additional embodiments, the processesof the present invention can comprise forming a single QD phosphormaterial from such multiple mixtures, such as the first through itmixtures.

In any of the foregoing embodiments, the process can include one or moremixtures comprising scattering features, such as scattering beads, and amatrix material. The process can include multiple mixtures havingdifferent sizes and/or concentrations of scattering beads. For example,the process can include a first mixture comprising a first size ofscattering beads and at least a second mixture comprising a second sizeof scattering beads. Additionally, or alternatively, the process caninclude a first mixture comprising a first concentration of scatteringbeads and at least a second mixture comprising a second concentration ofscattering beads.

In any of the foregoing embodiments, the process can include a blankmatrix material, such as epoxy, a PEI-epoxy mixture, or an APS-epoxymixture, which can be added to the QD phosphor material mixture toadjust the QD phosphor material layer thickness, adhesiveness, index ofrefraction, QD concentration, scattering bead concentration, viscosity,or other elements. The blank material can provide a seal material, suchas a seal region around the edges of the individual QD phosphor layers,and the blank material can be used to form a buffer layer to separatedistinct regions of the QD phosphor material.

In certain embodiments, processes for forming the QD film include theformation of spatial variations in one or more layers of the QD film, asexplained in more detail above.

Electroluminescent Devices

In one general class of embodiments, the QD film includes a plurality ofQDs, whereby the QD film is used as an electroluminescent light source.As shown in FIGS. 39A-39C, the electroluminescent device 3900 includes aQD film. 3902 including a luminescent QD layer 3904. Preferably, theluminescent QD layer 3904 includes a plurality of QDs dispersed in amatrix material 3930. Preferably, the QD layer 3904 includes multipledifferent QDs capable of emitting different wavelengths of light. Inpreferred embodiments, the luminescent QD layer 3904 includes a uniformmixture of different QDs which together emit a mixed color of light(e.g., white light), whereby the light emitted from theelectroluminescent device 3900 is a uniform, mixed color of lightcomprising the different colors of light emitted by the different QDs.For example, the QD layer 3904 can include a mixture of redlight-emitting QDs 3904 a, green light-emitting QDs 3904 b, and bluelight-emitting QDs 3904 c, wherein the red, green, and bluelight-emitting QDs are uniformly distributed throughout the horizontalplane of the QD layer 3904 such that the light emitted by theelectroluminescent device 3900 is white light.

Most preferably, the QD layer includes a first plurality of QDs capableof emitting red light, a second plurality of QDs capable of emittinggreen light, and a third plurality of QDs capable of emitting bluelight. In certain embodiments, the QD layer 3904 includes a monolayer ofQDs.

The layers surrounding the luminescent QD layer 3904 in theelectroluminescent device 3900 can include any arrangement of layerssuitable for forming an electroluminescent BLU, including any layers andarrangement of layers known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Inthe example embodiment shown in FIG. 39A, the device includes theluminescent QD layer 3904, an anode layer 3962, and a cathode layer3964. Preferably, the cathode layer 3964 is a reflective layer, wherebylight emitted by the electroluminescent QDs is reflected away from thecathode layer 3964, such that light is emitted by the BLU only from thetop surface of the BLU. The cathode layer 3964 can be the reflectivelayer, or a separate reflective layer can be included (not shown). Asshown in FIG. 39B, the device can further include a first encapsulationor barrier layer 3920 and a second encapsulation or barrier layer 3922.Preferably, the electroluminescent QD layer 3904 disposed between thefirst and second encapsulation layers. Preferably, each of the first andsecond encapsulation barrier layers are directly adjacent to and indirect physical contact with the electroluminescent QD layer 3904. Asshown in FIG. 39C, the device can further include a hole transport layer(HTL) 3966 disposed between the electroluminescent QD layer 3904 and theanode 3962, and/or an electron transport layer (ETL) 3968 disposedbetween the electroluminescent QD layer 3904 and the cathode 3964. Inanother embodiment (not shown), the device can include the anode, thecathode, and the HTL and/or ETL, whereby one or more of these layersforms a barrier layer to protect the electroluminescent QD layer. Aswill be understood by persons of ordinary skill in the art, any suitablecombination of these layers or elements described herein can be employedto form, the electroluminescent BLU of the present invention.

In one embodiment, the electroluminescent QD BLU can include pixelelectronics, e.g., row and column transistors, to individually addressdifferent spatial regions or pixels of the QD layer 3904. This allowsfor electrical stimulation (or lack thereof) of QDs confined to theparticular region of the QD layer 3904 which is electronically addressedby the relative transistors. This allows for local light emission andlocal dimming over different spatial regions of the QD layersimultaneously, thereby saving energy and improving contrast duringoperation of the BLU. In one embodiment, the anode layer 3962 and/orcathode layer 3964 can include row and/or column transistors. Forexample, the BLU can include an active matrix or a passive matrixtransistor configuration to address individual spatial regions or pixelsin the QD layer 3904, or any other transistor configurations known tothose of ordinary skill in the art.

In another class of embodiments, the luminescent QD layer 3904 caninclude a plurality of spatial regions distinguished by the color oflight emitted by the quantum dots disposed within each spatial region.For example, the QD layer 3904 can include a first plurality of spatialregions or pixels patterned in the QD layer to create a BLU for adisplay device. Each pixel can include a separate subpixel for emittingred, green, and blue light. The QD phosphor layer can include a firstplurality of spatial regions or subpixels comprising red-emitting QDs, asecond plurality of spatial regions or subpixels comprisinggreen-emitting QDs, and optionally a third plurality of spatial regionsor subpixels comprising blue-emitting QDs. The subpixels can bepatterned using the roll-to-roll processing techniques described herein,whereby a separate QD matrix material is applied to form the red, green,and blue light-emitting spatial regions or subpixels. As explainedabove, the BLU can include any suitable transistor configuration forindividually addressing the individual pixels and subpixels, wherebyaddressing each pixel or subpixel causes electrical stimulation of theQDs associated with each individual pixel or subpixel.

While various embodiments of the present invention have been describedabove, it should be understood that they have been presented by way ofexample only, and not limitation. It will be apparent to persons skilledin the relevant art that various changes in form and detail can be madetherein without departing from, the spirit and scope of the invention.Thus, the breadth and scope of the present invention should not belimited by any of the above-described exemplary embodiments, but shouldbe defined only in accordance with the following claims and theirequivalents.

As will be understood by persons of ordinary skill in the art, any ofthe foregoing device and/or processing components can be used in anysuitable combination, to form the QD film of the present invention.

All publications, patents and patent applications mentioned in thisspecification are indicative of the level of skill of those skilled inthe art to which this invention pertains, and are herein incorporated byreference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patentor patent application was specifically and individually indicated to beincorporated by reference.

What is claimed is:
 1. A display backlighting unit (BLU), comprising: atleast one primary light source that emits primary light; a light guidepanel (LGP) optically coupled to the at least one primary light source,whereby the primary light is transmitted through the LGP, wherein theLGP has a first refractive index; and a remote phosphor film comprisinga first population and a second population of quantum dots (QDs)embedded in at least one matrix material, wherein the primary lighttransmits through the LGP and into the remote phosphor film to cause theQDs to emit secondary light upon absorption of the primary light;wherein the at least one matrix material has a second refractive indexlower than the first refractive index, such that the primary light hasan increased optical path length within the QD phosphor material tocause increased primary light absorption by the QDs to increase emissionof secondary light.
 2. The display BLU of claim 1, wherein the remotephosphor film further comprises one or more scattering features thatscatter primary light to further increase the optical path length of theprimary light within the phosphor material, thereby cause furtherincreased primary light absorption by the QDs to increase more emissionof secondary light.
 3. The display BLU of claim 2, wherein thescattering features comprise scattering particles, scattering voids,scattering domains, or scattering surface features.
 4. The display BLUof claim 3, wherein the scattering features comprise scatteringparticles, wherein the scattering particles comprise sphericalscattering beads.
 5. The display BLU of claim 4, wherein the scatteringbeads comprise silica, borosilicate, or polystyrene.
 6. The display BLUof claim 2, wherein the scattering features are embedded in the matrixmaterial and have an index of refraction higher than that of thesurrounding matrix material.
 7. The display BLU of claim 2, wherein thescattering features comprise a population of light emitting QDs that areconfigured to absorb primary light and emit blue light.
 8. The displayBLU of claim 2, wherein at least a portion of the scattering featuresare disposed in the same QD phosphor material layer as the firstpopulation or the second population of the QDs.
 9. The display BLU ofclaim 2, wherein at least a portion of the scattering features aredisposed between the first population of the QDs and the secondpopulation of the QDs.
 10. The display BLU of claim 2, wherein theremote phosphor film comprises a first QD phosphor material layercomprising the first population of QDs, and a second QD phosphormaterial layer comprising the second population of QDs, wherein thescattering features are disposed in a third QD phosphor material layerthat is distinct from the first and second QD phosphor material layers.11. A display backlighting unit (BLU), comprising: at least one primarylight source that emits primary light; a light guide panel (LGP)optically coupled to the at least one primary light source, whereby theprimary light is transmitted through the LGP; and a remote phosphor filmcomprising a first population and a second population of quantum dots(QDs), wherein the primary light transmits through the LGP and into theremote phosphor film to cause the QDs to emit secondary light uponabsorption of the primary light; wherein the QDs are embedded in a firstmatrix material having a first refractive index and a second matrixmaterial has a second first refractive index different than the firstrefractive index, such that the primary light is refracted in the remotephosphor film to have an increased optical path length with respect tothe QD phosphor material to cause increased primary light absorption bythe QDs to increase emission of secondary light.
 12. The display BLU ofclaim 11, wherein the remote phosphor film further comprises one or morescattering features that scatter primary light to further increase theoptical path length of the primary light within the phosphor material,thereby cause further increased primary light absorption by the QDs toincrease more emission of secondary light.
 13. The display BLU of claim12, wherein the scattering features comprise scattering particles,scattering voids, scattering domains, or scattering surface features.14. The display BLU of claim 12, wherein the scattering featurescomprise scattering particles, wherein the scattering particles comprisespherical scattering beads.
 15. The display BLU of claim 14, wherein thescattering beads comprise silica, borosilicate, or polystyrene.
 16. Thedisplay BLU of claim 12, wherein the scattering features are embedded inthe matrix material and have an index of refraction higher than that ofthe surrounding matrix material.
 17. The display BLU of claim 12,wherein the scattering features comprise a population of light emittingQDs that are configured to absorb primary light and emit blue light. 18.The display BLU of claim 12, wherein at least a portion of thescattering features are disposed in the same QD phosphor material layeras the first population or the second population of the QDs.
 19. Thedisplay BLU of claim 12, wherein at least a portion of the scatteringfeatures are disposed between the first population of the QDs and thesecond population of the QDs.
 20. The display BLU of claim 11, whereinthe first refractive index is less than 2, and the second refractiveindex is about 2 or greater.